Airavatesvara Temple

Last updated

Airavatesvara Temple
ஐராவதேசுவரர் கோயில்
A different view of Airavatesvara Temple.jpg
The main temple
Religion
Affiliation Hinduism
Deity Shiva
Location
Location Kumbakonam, India
India Tamil Nadu location map.svg
Om symbol.svg
Location in Tamil Nadu
India location map.svg
Om symbol.svg
Location in India
Geographic coordinates 10°56′54″N79°21′24″E / 10.9484°N 79.3567°E / 10.9484; 79.3567
Architecture
Creator Rajaraja II
Completed12th century AD
Inscriptions Tamil
Part of Great Living Chola Temples
Criteria Cultural: (ii), (iii)
Reference 250-003
Inscription1987 (11th Session)
Extensions2004

Airavatesvara Temple is a Hindu temple of Chola architecture located in Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. This temple, built by Chola emperor Rajaraja II in the 12th century CE is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, the Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram that are referred to as the Great Living Chola Temples. [1]

Contents

The Airavatesvarar temple is one among a cluster of eighteen medieval era large Hindu temples in the Kumbakonam area, Thanjavur District. [2] The temple is dedicated to Shiva. It also reverentially displays Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism, along with the legends associated with Nayanmars – the Bhakti movement saints of Shaivism. [3] [4]

The stone temple incorporates a chariot structure, and includes major Vedic and Puranic deities such as Indra, Agni, Varuna, Vayu, Brahma, Surya, Vishnu, Saptamatrikas, Durga, Saraswati, Sri devi (Lakshmi), Ganga, Yamuna, Subrahmanya, Ganesha, Kama, Rati and others. [5] Shiva's consort has a dedicated shrine called the Periya Nayaki Amman temple. This is a detached temple situated to the north of the Airavateshvarar temple. This might have been a part of the main temple when the outer courts were complete. At present, parts of the temple such as the gopuram is in ruins, and the main temple and associated shrines stand alone. [6] It has two sun dials namely morning and evening sun dials which can be seen as wheels of the chariot. The temple continues to attract large gatherings of Hindu pilgrims every year during Magha, while some of the images such as those of Durga and Shiva are part of special pujas. [5] [7]

Location

The Airavatesvara Temple is located in Kumbakonam city, 310 kilometres (190 mi) southwest of Chennai and 90 kilometres (56 mi) from Chidambaram. It is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) to the northeast to the Brihadeeswara Temple in Thanjavur, and about 30 kilometres (19 mi) to the southwest of Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple. All three are a part of the UNESCO world heritage site. [1] [8]

A vimana or pyramidal tower inside the Airavatesvara Temple "Architecture of World Heritage Monument Airavatesvara Temple".JPG
A vimana or pyramidal tower inside the Airavatesvara Temple

The nearest airport with regular services is Tiruchirappalli International Airport (IATA: TRZ), about 90 kilometres (56 mi) away. [9] The temple is on highway 22 connecting Tiruchirappalli, and highway 36 connecting it to Thanjavur. The nearby cities of Tiruchirapalli and Chidambaram are connected daily to other major cities by the network of Indian Railways and Tamil Nadu bus services. [10] [11]

The temple though inland, is near the Kollidam River, within the Kaveri (Cauvery) delta with access to the Bay of Bengal and through it to the Indian Ocean. [12]

Nomenclature

The Airavatesvara Shiva temple has a water tank. This tank has a connected channel that brings in Cauveri River water where Hindus gather annually to take a dip. The local mythology narrates how Airavata, or Indra's (malla) white elephant was restored to clean, white skin after he took a dip in this tank. This legend is carved in stone in the inner shrine, and this Indra's elephant gives this temple its name. [13]

Architecture

Chariot detail, Airavatesvara temple, Tamil Nadu. Chariot detail, Airavatesvara, Tamil Nadu.jpg
Chariot detail, Airavatesvara temple, Tamil Nadu.
This is the other side of the gopuram sculpted with beautiful sculptures Darasuram, Airavatesvara Temple, Gopuram, India.jpg
This is the other side of the gopuram sculpted with beautiful sculptures

The Cholas built hundreds of Hindu temples across their empire. Of these four were vast complexes with made of stone vimanas (pyramidal towers). [14] The Airavatesvara temple is one of these four temples and was built by Rajaraja II. [1] It is classified as Karak Koil, since it was designed after chariots - vehicles which were used in processions during festivals. [15] The other three temples are found in Thanjavur built by Rajaraja I, Gangaikonda Cholapuram built by Rajendra I, and Tribuvanam by Kulottunga II. [16]

The Airavatesvara temple is another square plan structure completed in 1166 CE. [17] The surviving [note 1] temple is enclosed by a compound wall that is approximately 107 metres (351 ft) by 70 metres (230 ft) with a nandi madapa and dhvajastambha found outside of the wall. [16] The main temple itself sits on a plinth that is 23 meters by 63 meters, and consists of the garbhagriha (inner sanctum), and three mandapas - ardhamandapa, mukhamandapa and agramandapa. [16]

N-TN-C189 Airavatesvara Temple-Chariot- Like-Rajagambhira-Mandapam-Pulled-by-Horses.jpg
The chariot-shaped agra-mandapam, with pillars and Nandi on top.
Muha Mandapam Airavatesvara Temple.jpg
The chariot wheel, the horse's head and body is ruined.

The garbhagriha or inner sanctum is a 12-metre-sided (39 ft) square, with thick walls on which the vimana (pyramidal tower) rises to a height of 24 m (79 ft). There is no circumambulatory path provided immediately around the inner sanctum; rather, it is outside in the courtyard. [16] The garbhagriha is connected to the mukhamandapa through the ardhamandapa supported on pillars and flanked by two massive dvarapalas .

The maha-mandapa is a rectangle of about 24 metres (79 ft) by 18 metres (59 ft), with six rows of right pillars (forty-eight in total). [16] These have reliefs and intricate carvings. Towards the east of the maha mandapa is the agra mandapa also called the Rajagambhiran-tiru-mandapam after the king. [1] [16] The agra mandapa hall is shaped like a chariot, with stone carvings of wheels and horses. The design is similar to the Nritta-sabha (community dance hall) of the Chidambaram temple and the Konark Sun Temple near Puri, Odisha. [16] [18]

Singing steps

The agra mandapa has an attached square porch of 7 metres (23 ft) side. It has ornately carved steps that go from east to west. On its east, outside the main podium, is the bali-pitham. It is unusual, in that it is produced as intricately carved balustraded steps, that produce a musical note. They are therefore called the "singing steps". [6] [16] [19]

Sculpture

This temple is a storehouse of art and architecture and has some exquisite stone carvings. Although this temple is much smaller than the Brihadeesvara Temple or the Gangaikondacholapuram Temple, it is more exquisite in detail. [17] The elevation and proportions of all the units is elegant with sculptures dominating the architecture. [1] The pedestal of the Balipitha adjoins a small shrine which contains an image of Ganesha.

The reliefs all along the base of the main temple narrate the stories of the sixty three Shaiva Bhakti saints called Nayanars. [17] These stories are found in the Periya Purana by Sekkilar. [20] [21]

Periya Nayaki, a smaller shrine PeriyaNayaki Darasuram.jpg
Periya Nayaki, a smaller shrine

On the outer walls of the main sanctum are sculpture niches, five on each side, with the middle one larger than others. They show various Hindu deities, with the middle one of each side showing Shiva in different aspects. [17]

Other shrines

In the south-west corner of the court is a mandapam having 4 shrines. One of these has an image of Yama. Adjoining this shrine are large stone slabs sculptured with images of the sapthamathas (seven celestial nymphs). [6] The construction of a separate temple for Devi, slightly later than the main temple, indicates the emergence of the Amman shrine as an essential component of the South Indian temple complex. [1]

Inscriptions

Inscription in Airavatesvara Temple "An inscriptions in Airavatesvara Temple".JPG
Inscription in Airavatesvara Temple

There are various inscriptions in the temple. One of these records the renovation of the shrines by Kulottunga Chola III. [22] The north wall of the verandah consists of 108 sections of inscriptions, each containing the name and description and image of the 63 Saivacharya (Saivite saints) listing the principal events in their life. [22] [23] [24] This reflects the deep roots of Saivism in this region. [1] Other important sculptures of the temple are the 108 Devara Othuvars who sung in the temple during the time of Raja Raja II. There are sculptures for river goddesses like Cauvery, Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari and Narmada. [25] Another inscription close to the gopura, records that an image was brought from Kalyani, then known as Kalyanapura by emperor Rajadhiraja Chola I after his defeat of the Western Chalukya king Someshwara I, his sons Vikramaditya VI and Someshwara II his capture of the Chalukyan capital. [22] [26]

The inscriptions are also important in identifying the sculptures that once were a part of various ruined monuments. For example, the eastern gopurum has niches with inscriptions that label the sculpture therein. Most of these sculptures are now broken or missing. The inscriptions indicate that it had the following sculptures: [27]

History

The temple was built by King Rajaraja Chola II. He ruled the Chola Empire between 1146 and 1172 CE. The established capital for his predecessors was Gangapuri, also referred to in some inscriptions as Gangaikonda Cholapuram, named after the king brought water from holy Ganges River by defeating every other kings who opposed him. Rajaraja II, however, spent most of his time in the secondary capital city of Ayirattali, also called Pazhaiyarai and Rajarajapuri. This urban complex included Darasuram, the site of Airavatesvara Temple in Kumbakonam. He was a patron of Tamil literature and sponsored new Hindu temples in the empire, instead of enhancements and expansions supported by his father and grandfather. The temple at Ayirattali, which came to be known as the Airavatesvarar temple in inscriptions is one of his legacies.

The Airavatesvara temple was much larger than it is now. It had sapta veedhis (seven streets) and seven courts, similar to the Srirangam temple, according to the inscriptions. All are gone, except the one court with the main temple that survives. There are ruins of gopuram and some structures at some distance from the current visitor premises confirming that the site was badly damaged at some point like the other major Chola era temples and various Chola cities including the capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

The reasons for this destruction are unclear. According to Vasanthi, the Pandyas who defeated the Cholas during the later part of 13th century "may have raged the city [Gangaikonda Cholapuram] to ground" to avenge their previous defeats.chapter=Excavation at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the imperial capital of Rajendra Chola, and its significance However, it is unclear why other temples were destroyed and this temple was spared, as well as why there are around 20 inscriptions from later Cholas, Pandyas and Vijayanagar Empire indicating various gifts and grants to this temple. An alternate theory links the destruction to the raids, plunder and wars, particularly with the invasion of the capital city and the territories that were earlier a part by the Chola Empire along with Madurai by the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by the Muslim commander Malik Kafur in 1311, followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314 and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1327. The period that followed saw wars between the Hindu kings and the Muslim Sultans who seceded the Delhi Sultanate and carved out new polity such as the nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–1378).Thanjavur was a target of both Muslim and Hindu neighboring kingdoms, both near and far. The Madurai Sultanate was established in the 14th century, after the disastrous invasions and plunder of South India by Ala ud-Din Khalji's armies of Delhi Sultanate led by Malik Kafur.George Michell (2008), Architecture and art of Southern India, Cambridge University Press, pages 9–13, 16-21 Later Adil Shahi Sultanate, Qutb Shahis, Randaula Khan and others from east and west coasts of South India raided it, and some occupied it for a few years. The Vijayanagara Empire defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1378 and this temple along with other Chola era temples thereafter came under Hindu kings again who repaired and restored many of them.

World Heritage Site

Airavatesvara Temple was added to UNESCO's World Heritage Site list of Great Living Chola Temples in the year 2004. The Great Living Chola Temples includes the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur, the Temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikonda Cholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Kumbakonam. All of these temples were built by the Cholas between the 10th and 12th centuries CE and have a lot of similarities. [28]

The American astronomer Carl Sagan visited the Airavatesvara Temple for his 1980 television documentary series, Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. In the tenth episode titled The Edge of Forever, Sagan talks about the Hindu religion and the Vedas, and narrates the legend of the god Shiva being considered a cosmic deity while displaying ancient Indian art. [29] [30]

Palace Devasthanam

Thanjavur Palace Devasthanam comprises 88 temples, of which this temple is the one. They are maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu. [31] [32] [33]

Notes

  1. The temple complex was seven fold larger. Much of it was destroyed in late 13th or early 14th century. [13]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rajaraja I</span> Chola emperor from 985-1014

Rajaraja I, also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He is known for his conquests of South India and parts of Sri Lanka, and increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gangaikonda Cholapuram</span> Town in Tamil Nadu, India

Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rajendra I</span> Chola emperor from 1014–1044

Rajendra I, often referred to as Rajendra the Great, Gangaikonda Cholan, and Kadaram Kondan, was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1014 and 1044 CE. He was born in Thanjavur to Rajaraja I and his queen Vanavan Mahadevi and assumed royal power as co-regent with his father in 1012 until his father died in 1014, when Rajendra ascended to the Chola throne. During his reign, the Chola Empire reached its zenith in the Indian subcontinent; it extended its reach via trade and conquest across the Indian Ocean, making Rajendra one of only a few Indian monarchs who conquered territory beyond South Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Darasuram</span> Suburban in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

Darasuram or Dharasuram is a neighbourhood in the city of Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India. The area is known for the Airavateswara temple constructed by the Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century CE. The temple is a recognised UNESCO World Heritage monument.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram</span> An 8th-century Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India

The Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram, also referred to as the Kailasanatha temple, is a Pallava-era historic Hindu temple in Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, India. Dedicated to Shiva, it is one of the oldest surviving monuments in Kanchipuram. It reflects a Dravidian architecture and was built about 700 CE by Narasimhavarman II with additions by Mahendravarman III. A square-plan temple, it has a mukha-mandapa, a maha-mandapa and a primary garbha-griya (sanctum) topped with a four-storey vimana. The main sanctum is surrounded by nine shrines, seven outside and two inside flanking the entrance of the sanctum, all with forms of Shiva. The outer walls of the temple's prakara (courtyard) is also surrounded by cells.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Great Living Chola Temples</span> UNESCO World Heritage Site in Tamil Nadu, India

The Great Living Chola Temples is a UNESCO World Heritage Site designation for a group of Chola dynasty era Hindu temples in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The temple at Thanjavur was added in the list in 1987, while the other two temples were added in 2004.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chola art and architecture</span> Art from the period of the imperial Cholas (c. 850 CE – 1250 CE) in South India

The period of the imperial Cholas in South India was an age of continuous improvement and refinement of Chola art and architecture. They utilised the wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures, in an almost exclusively Dravidian cultural setting.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chola Empire</span> Medieval Indian empire (848–1279)

The Chola Empire, which is often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, was a medieval thalassocratic empire based in southern India that was ruled by the Chola dynasty, and comprised overseas dominions, protectorates and spheres of influence in southeast Asia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kulothunga II</span> Chola Emperor from 1133 to 1150

Kulothunga II was a Chola Emperor from 1133 CE to 1150 CE. He succeeded Vikrama Chola to the throne in 1135 CE. Vikrama Chola made Kulothunga his heir apparent and coregent in 1133 CE, so the inscriptions of Kulothunga II count his reign from 1133 CE. According to historians Nilakanta Sastri and T.N Subramanian, Kulottunga Chola II was not the son of Vikrama Chola and they have suggested that there was a break in the line of succession.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram</span> Hindu temple of Shiva in Tamil Nadu, India

Thillai Nataraja Temple, also referred as the Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Nataraja, the form of Shiva as the lord of dance. This temple is located in Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India. This temple has ancient roots and a Shiva shrine existed at the site when the town was known as Thillai. Chidambaram, the name of the city literally means "stage of consciousness". The temple architecture symbolizes the connection between the arts and spirituality, creative activity and the divine. The temple wall carvings display all the 108 karanas and these postures form a foundation of Bharatanatyam, an Indian classical dance derived from Sathirattam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dravidian architecture</span> Architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture

Dravidian architecture, or the Southern Indian temple style, is an architectural idiom in Hindu temple architecture that emerged from Southern India, reaching its final form by the sixteenth century.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pazhayarai</span> Ancient Chola capital city

Pazhayarai or Pazhaiyarai or Palayarai was an ancient capital of the medieval Chola dynasty in Tamil Nadu. The place is located around 7 km (4.3 mi) from Kumbakonam, a city in Thanjavur district, in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is located on the banks of T.Patnam river, one of the distributaries of the river Kaveri. There are a number of villages within the area of historic Pazhaiyarai. The place was called Ayiratalli, meaning a land of thousand temples. The place is referred under various names like Ayiratalli, Pazhayar, Ahavamallakulakalapuram and Minavanaivenkadasolapuram.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brihadisvara Temple</span> 11th century temple and UNESCO World Heritage Site

Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram by its builder, and known locally as Thanjai Periya Kovil and Peruvudaiyar Kovil, is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the south bank of the Cauvery river in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the largest Hindu temples and an exemplar of Tamil architecture. It is also called Dakshina Meru. Built by Chola emperor Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 CE, the temple is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples", along with the Chola-era Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, which are about 70 kilometres (43 mi) and 40 kilometres (25 mi) to its northeast respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Thyagaraja Temple, Tiruvarur</span> Temple in Tamil Nadu, India

Thyagaraja Temple is a Shiva temple, located in the town of Thiruvarur in Tamil Nadu state, India. Shiva is worshiped in the form of a lingam as Thyagarajaswami, also known as Putridankondar. His consort Parvati is worshipped as Goddess Neelotpalambika. She is also worshipped as Goddess Kamalambika, whose separate shrine is an important center for Shaktism and Tantra, and is also regarded to be one of the Shakti Peethas. The presiding deity is revered in the 7th century Shaiva canonical work, the Tevaram, written in Tamil by saint poets known as the Nayanars and the shrine is classified as a Paadal Petra Sthalam.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahalingeswarar Temple, Thiruvidaimarudur</span> Hindu temple in Thanjavur

Mahalingeswaraswamy Temple, Thiruvidaimarudur is a Hindu temple dedicated to the deity Shiva, located in Tiruvidaimaruthur, a village in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is significant to the Hindu sect of Saivism as one of the seven major Shiva temples. Shiva is worshiped as Mahalingeswaraswamy, and is represented by the lingam, with his idol referred to as Jyothirmayalingam. His consort Mookambika is depicted as Devi Bruhatsundarakuchaambika or Bruhatsundarakuchaambigai amman. The lingam of the temple is believed to be the focal point for the seven consorts of Shiva. The presiding deity is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Tevaram, written by Tamil poet saints known as the nayanars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam. The 9th century Saiva saint poet Manikkavacakar has sung praise about the temple in his works. Pattinattar, one of the revered saints visited this shrine many times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kampaheswarar Temple, Thirubuvanam</span> Shiva temple in Tamil Nadu, India

The Kampaheswarar Temple or kampa-hara-ishvarar is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Shiva. It is situated in Thirubuvanam, a village in Thanjavur district in the South Indian State of Tamil Nadu, on the Mayiladuthurai-Kumbakonam road. Shiva is worshiped as "Kampahareswarar" as he removed the quaking of a king who was being haunted by a Brahmarakshasa. It was built by Kulothunga Chola III and is considered the last of the four masterpieces built during the Medieval Chola era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nageswaraswamy Temple</span> Temple in Tamil Nadu, India

Nageswaraswamy Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Kumbakonam in Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India. The presiding deity is revered in the 7th-century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Tevaram, written by Tamil poet saints known as the nayanars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam. The temple is counted as the earliest of all Chola temples. Shiva in the guise of Nagaraja, the serpent king..

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Architecture of Tamil Nadu</span> Overview of the architecture of Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is known for its ancient temple architecture. Nearly 33,000 ancient temples, many at least 800 to 2000 years old, are found scattered all over Tamil Nadu. As per Tamil Nadu Hindu Endowments Board, there are 38,615 temples. Most of the largest Hindu Temples are located in Tamil Nadu. Studded with complex architecture, a variety of sculptures, and rich inscriptions, the temples remain the very essence of the culture and heritage of Tamil land, with historical records dating back to at least 3,000 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brihadisvara Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram</span> Brohadisvara temple is known as Gangaikonda cholapuram

The Brihadisvara Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva in Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Jayankondam, in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Completed in 1035 AD by Rajendra Chola I as a part of his new capital, this Chola dynasty era temple is similar in design, and has a similar name, as the older 11th century, Brihadeeswarar Temple about 70 kilometres (43 mi) to the southwest in Thanjavur. The Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple is smaller yet more refined than the Thanjavur Temple. Both are among the largest Shiva temples in South India and examples of Dravidian style temples. The temple is also referred to in texts as Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple or Gangaikondacholeeswaram Temple

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kabartheeswarar Temple</span> Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu, India

Kapardeeswarar temple is a Hindu temple situated in the village of Thiruvalanchuzhi near Swamimalai in Kumbakonam taluk of Thanjavur district, Tamil Nadu, India. Shiva is worshiped as Kapardeeswarar and is represented by the lingam and his consort Parvati is depicted as Brihannayagi. The presiding deity is revered in the 7th century Tamil Saiva canonical work, the Tevaram, written by Tamil poet saints known as the nayanars and classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2004. Retrieved 28 November 2015.
  2. Ayyar 1992, pp. 349-350
  3. S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1979, pp. 225–245.
  4. Indira Menon (2013). Rhythms in Stone, The Temples of South India. Ambi. p. 118. ISBN   978-81-903591-3-9.
  5. 1 2 S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1979, pp. 225–234.
  6. 1 2 3 Ayyar 1993, p. 351
  7. Pratapaditya Pal; Stephen P. Huyler; John E. Cort; et al. (2016). Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent. Univ of California Press. p. 65. ISBN   978-0-520-28847-8.
  8. Great Living Chola Temples, Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India
  9. Ē. Kē Cēṣāttiri (2008). Sri Brihadisvara: The Great Temple of Thānjavūr. Nile. p. 5.
  10. "NH wise Details of NH in respect of Stretches entrusted to NHAI" (PDF). Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India . National Highways Authority of India. p. 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2009. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
  11. "Thanjavur bus routes". Municipality of Thanjavur. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2012.
  12. Marshall M. Bouton (2014). Agrarian Radicalism in South India. Princeton University Press. pp. 72–78. ISBN   978-1-4008-5784-5.
  13. 1 2 Ayyar 1992, pp. 350-351
  14. "Definition of VIMANA". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  15. Reddy, G.Venkatramana (2010). Alayam - The Hindu temple - An epitome of Hindu Culture. Mylapore, Chennai: Sri Ramakrishna Math. pp. 31–32. ISBN   978-81-7823-542-4.
  16. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1979, pp. 225–227.
  17. 1 2 3 4 George Michell (2012). Julia A. B. Hegewald and Subrata K. Mitra (ed.). Re-Use-The Art and Politics of Integration and Anxiety. SAGE Publications. pp. 91–93. ISBN   978-81-321-0981-5.
  18. Chaitanya 1987, p. 42
  19. K. M. Venkataramaiah (1996). A Handbook of Tamil Nadu. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. p. 283. ISBN   978-81-85692-20-3.
  20. James C. Harle (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent . Yale University Press. p.  318. ISBN   978-0-300-06217-5.
  21. Vidya Dehejia (2010). Art of the Imperial Cholas. Columbia University Press. pp. 106–115. ISBN   978-0-231-51524-5.
  22. 1 2 3 Ayyar 1993, p. 353
  23. Chaitanya 1997, p. 40
  24. Vasudevan, p. 55
  25. Srinivasan, G. (20 July 2011). "Darasuram: architectural marvel from Chola period". The Hindu.
  26. Davis 1997, p. 51
  27. S.R. Balasubrahmanyam 1979, pp. 227–228.
  28. Ayyar 1993, p. 316
  29. Says, Umesh Mehta. "The Great Chola Temples Thanjavur, Gangaikondacholapuram and Darasuram | Sahapedia" . Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  30. "Cosmos Carl Sagan s01e10 Episode Script | SS". Springfield! Springfield!. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  31. "Thanjavur Palace Devasthanam, Thanjavur - 613009, Thanjavur District [TM013967].,". hrce.tn.gov.in. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  32. தஞ்சாவூர் அரண்மனை தேவஸ்தானத்தைச் சேர்ந்த ஆலயங்கள், தஞ்சை இராஜராஜேச்சரம் திருக்குட நன்னீராட்டுப் பெருவிழா மலர், 1997
  33. J.M.Somasundaram Pillai, The Great Temple at Tanjore, [Tanjore Palace Devastanams, II Edn 1958] Rpt 1994, Tamil University, Thanjavur

Bibliography