Anti-Arabism in Turkey

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In Turkey, while most instances of anti-Arab sentiment have been directed at Syrian refugees, the phenomenon has more recently grown to include other Arabs, such as those from the Gulf countries. [1] [2] [3] [4] The country's far-right politics frequently consist of discourse portraying the Syrians and other Arabs as a backwards and uncivilized force afflicting the Turks. Rising levels of anti-Arab sentiment have also been attributed to the Turkish economic crisis. [1] [5] [6] Additionally, it is also rooted in Turkey's migrant crisis, which began alongside the Arab Spring; the Turkish government had documented 3.7 million Syrians as refugees by 2018. That same year, the United Nations reported that 63.4% of all registered Syrian refugees in the world were in Turkey. A number of Turkish politicians have been critical of the large Arab presence in the country since the beginning of the Syrian Civil War; the influx of refugees, which soon tied into the European migrant crisis, became among the factors that stalled talks for Turkey's accession to the European Union in 2016.[ citation needed ]

Contents

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was a multi-cultural polity, spanning the Middle East and North Africa and large parts of Eastern Europe. Most high government positions were held by European and Rumelian elites, except for the Emirate of Hejaz under Ottoman rule, although Arabs did maintain positions of power and many territories retained local autonomy.

Republic of Turkey

Haaretz reported that anti-Arabism in Turkey mainly affects two groups: tourists from the Gulf countries who are characterized as "rich and condescending"; and Syrian refugees. [1] It also reported that anti-Syrian sentiment in Turkey is metastasizing into a general hostility towards all Arabs, including the Palestinians. [1]

Turkey's decision to accept Syrian refugees under Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan have contributed to rise of xenophobia in many opposition parties. Ümit Özdağ, the former deputy-chairman of the Victory Party, warned that Turkey risked becoming "a Middle Eastern country" because of the influx of Arab refugees. [7]

Portrayal of Arabs in Turkish society

Due to portrayal of Arab Revolt within secular and nationalist Arab and Turkish circles even if not fully historical, there is a strong negative depiction which was dated from Kemalist Turkey in the 1930s, associating Arabs with backwardness. [8] This has continued influencing modern Turkish historiography and the crusade of Turkish soft power, with Arabs being frequently stereotyped as evil, uncivilized, terrorists, and incompetent. Such depictions are frequently used in contrast to the alleged depiction of Turkic peoples as "noble, generous, fearsome, loyal, brave and spirited warriors." [9]

Anti-Arab sentiment is also further fueled by ultranationalist groups, including the Grey Wolves and pan-Turkist nationalist parties, [10] who called for invasions of Syria and Iraq to prevent the alleged ongoing Arab persecutions of their Turkic populations. [11] [12]

Growing influx of Syrian refugees in Turkey led to a wave of anti-Arabism, especially from secular urban groups. [13]

Syrians

Syrian Arabs are the most frequent targets in Turkey. With the Syrian Civil War that started in 2011, Syrians who came to Turkey are exposed to discrimination in many areas. According to researcher Şenay Özden, racist attitudes and discourses towards Syrians in Turkey increased with the thought that refugees are permanent in Turkey. 92% of Syrians living in Turkey state that they are exposed to discrimination. [14]

In the research conducted by the International Organization for Migration with 636 people, it was determined that nearly half of the participants saw the Syrians as a "less talented race". In addition, one third of the participants stated that they believe that Syrian refugees are not victims of war. Although more than half of the participants stated that they encounter Syrians every day, only 22% of them declared that they had any contact with Syrians. [15]

Economic problems and unemployment in Turkey are associated with Syrian refugees by some. [16] It is stated that these problems strengthen the negative perspective towards Syrians and trigger racism more. Researches reveal that the economically weak part of the public, in particular, sees Syrian refugees as the chief culprit of economic problems. [17] [18] Reports stating that anti-Syrian sentiment is most intensely carried out by those with a weak economic situation, show that the main reason for this is mostly Syrian refugees working in sectors that require cheap labor. [17] [18] [19]

There is a correlation between racist violence attempts against Syrians and Syrians working informally. [20] Anti-Syrian sentiment has increased during election periods. Political parties' making political announcements and statements over Syrians as a voting tool is directly related to the racist attacks that Syrians are exposed to. [21]

Within the realm of social media, immigration attitudes tend to align with the concept of "welfare chauvinism," where Turkish citizens are viewed as deserving priority access to government-provided social benefits. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has catalyzed this sentiment, leading to exclusionary attitudes towards immigrants. Additionally, public declarations from policymakers touting generous public spending towards immigrants have evoked negative reactions among social media users. Nativist sentiments that incorporate a patronizing tolerance towards immigrants bear a striking resemblance to social dynamics observed in societies that are ethnically or racially divided. Adopting a supremacist ethos, such sentiments offer limited inclusion to migrants, but only under stringent conditions. Above all else, immigrants are expected to exhibit docility to such a degree that they must remain silent on political matters that have a direct impact on their lives and futures. Furthermore, immigrants are expected to overtly express their gratitude. In recent times, the public sentiment on Syrian immigrants in Turkish social media has shifted towards a more positive outlook. This shift coincided with Turkish forces launching a cross-border operation in Syria, followed by Turkish authorities opening the European border for Syrian immigrants. This trend suggests that refugees and immigrants are viewed as instruments to embarrass the rhetorical enemy of Turkish civilizationism, namely Western civilization. While refugees and immigrants serve this purpose well, the ultimate decision to remain or depart rests with them. Hence, the notion of patronizing tolerance serves as a pervasive theme in the context of immigrant-host society relationships in Turkey. [22]

There are also those who hold Syrian refugees responsible for the increase in rents and the increase in prices in the markets. According to Metin Çorabatır, head of the Center for Asylum and Migration Studies, the reason for this prejudice and racist attitudes towards Syrians is misinformation on social media. In addition, non-governmental organizations and researchers state that the language and style used for Syrians in the news given by the media trigger racist attacks and behavior against Syrians, and they accuse anti-Syrian social media posts. [23] [24] The lack of transparency in the aid provided by the state to Syrians increases hate speech in society. [25]

In line with the above, according to a study conducted in Gaziantep in 2021, it was determined that the biggest concern among Syrians was racism and economic problems. [26] Similarly, according to Metin Çorabatır of the Center for Asylum and Migration Studies, all Syrians in Turkey are exposed to racist rhetoric and actions. [23]

Teachers state that some of the Syrian students are constantly in the psychology of exclusion and oppression, and accordingly, behaviors that transcend the limits in rulelessness are observed. Teachers who work in schools with Syrians and have burnout syndrome state that violence at school has increased. [27]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia</span> Dislike of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange

Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity.

Anti-Arab racism includes opposition to, dislike, fear, or hatred of Arab people.

Opposition to immigration, also known as anti-immigration, is a political ideology that seeks to restrict the incoming of people from one area to another. In the modern sense, immigration refers to the entry of people from one state or territory into another state or territory in which they are not citizens in contrast, but closely correspond to emigration which refers people leaving one state or territory in which they are citizens. Illegal immigration occurs when people immigrate to a country without having official permission to do so. Opposition to immigration ranges from calls for various immigration reforms, to proposals to completely restrict immigration, to calls for repatriation of existing immigrants.

Syrian Turkmen are Syrian citizens of Turkish origin who mainly trace their roots to Anatolia. Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen make up the third largest ethnic group in the country, after the Arabs and Kurds respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immigration to Europe</span>

Immigration to Europe has a long history, but increased substantially after World War II. Western European countries, especially, saw high growth in immigration post 1945, and many European nations today have sizeable immigrant populations, both of European and non-European origin. In contemporary globalization, migrations to Europe have accelerated in speed and scale. Over the last decades, there has been an increase in negative attitudes towards immigration, and many studies have emphasized marked differences in the strength of anti-immigrant attitudes among European countries.

Racism has been a recurring part of the history of Europe.

In the Arab world, racism targets non-Arabs and the expat majority of the Arab states of the Persian Gulf coming from South Asian groups as well as Black, European, and Asian groups that are Muslim; non-Arab ethnic minorities such as Armenians, Africans, the Saqaliba, Southeast Asians, Jews, Kurds, and Coptic Christians, Assyrians, Persians, Turks, and other Turkic peoples, and South Asians living in Arab countries of the Middle East.

Racism in South Korea comprises negative attitudes and views on race or ethnicity which are related to each other, are held by various people and groups in South Korea, and have been reflected in discriminatory laws, practices and actions at various times in the history of South Korea against racial or ethnic groups. It has been recognized as a widespread social problem in the country. South Korea lacks an anti-discrimination law, which was recommended by the UN Human Rights Committee in 2015. The law has been reported stalled due to "lack of public consensus".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey</span> Racism and ethnic discrimination in Turkey

In Turkey, xenophobia and discrimination are present in its society and throughout its history, including ethnic discrimination, religious discrimination and institutional racism against non-Muslim and non-Sunni minorities. This appears mainly in the form of negative attitudes and actions by some people towards people who are not considered ethnically Turkish, notably Kurds, Armenians, Arabs, Assyrians, Greeks, Jews, and peripatetic groups like Romani people, Domari, Abdals and Lom.

Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against people who belong to or originate from the various ethnic groups of the Middle East. Although it is commonly associated with Islamophobia, as Muslims constitute the majority of the region's population, it is a distinct type of hatred in itself and may not always stem from religion-based animosity. People who harbour negative feelings towards the region's people view them as barbaric and inferior on racial, ethnic, cultural, or religious grounds, or a combination of any of these factors.

The Domari-speaking community in Syria, commonly identified as Dom and Nawar, is estimated to number 100–250,000 or 250–300,000 people. The vast majority is sedentary. There are semi-nomadic groups, some moving outside the country. In Aleppo, the Dom community is probably the largest, while they are reported to live in Damascus, Homs and Latakia as well. The community is highly marginalised in society, and they are referred to as Qurbāṭ and Qarač in the northern part, and Nawar elsewhere. These terms are used for various groups that mainly share socio-economic profile. The community is divided into clans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Anti-Kurdish sentiment</span> Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Kurds

Anti-Kurdish sentiment, also known as anti-Kurdism or Kurdophobia, is hostility, fear, intolerance or racism against the Kurdish people, Kurdistan, Kurdish culture, or Kurdish languages. A person who holds such positions is sometimes referred to as a "Kurdophobe".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrians in Germany</span> Residents of Germany of Syrian descent

Syrians in Germany refers to Syrian immigrants in Germany, or Germans with Syrian ancestry. The number of people with an immigration background from Syria, including those with German citizenship, was estimated at around 1,225,000 in 2022. Additionally, the population with Syrian citizenship residing in Germany is 923,000 in 2022, making it the second-largest group of foreign nationals living in the country. Notably, Germany boasts by far the largest Syrian diaspora outside of the Middle East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkish occupation of northern Syria</span> Turkeys military occupation since 2016

The Turkish Armed Forces and its ally the Syrian National Army have occupied areas of northern Syria since August 2016, during the Syrian Civil War. Though these areas nominally acknowledge a government affiliated with the Syrian opposition, in practice they constitute a separate proto-state under the dual authority of decentralized native local councils and Turkish military administration.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Syrians in Turkey</span> Ethnic group

Syrians in Turkey, includes Turkish citizens of Syrian origin, Syrian refugees, and other Syrian citizens resident in Turkey. As of January 2024, there are approximately 3,200,000 registered refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey, which hosts the biggest refugee population in the whole world. In addition, almost 80,000 Syrian nationals reside in Turkey with a residence permit. Apart from Syrian refugees under temporary protection and Syrian citizens with a residence permit; 238,055 Syrian nationals acquired Turkish citizenship as of December 2023.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey</span>

Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey are the Syrian refugees fleeing the Syrian civil war. The Republic of Turkey hosts over 3.7 million registered refugees.

Anti-Chechen sentiment, Chechenophobia, anti-Chechenism, or Nokhchophobia, refers to fear, dislike, hostility, hatred, discrimination, and racism towards ethnic Chechens, the Chechen language, or the Chechen culture in general. Anti-Chechen sentiment has been historically strong in Russia, and to some degree has spread to other countries in the former Soviet Union, such as Azerbaijan, to Europe, the Middle East, and to the United States. For decades, the main causes of hatred against Chechens have been largely due to the created narrative which depicts a violent mentality of Chechens, the association of Chechens with Islamic extremism, and Russian imperialist propaganda targeted at Chechens.

In the Western world or in non-Asian countries, terms such as "racism against Asians" or "anti-Asian racism" are typically used in reference to racist policies, discrimination against, and mistreatment of Asian people and Asian immigrants by institutions and/or non-Asian people.

Anti-Syrian sentiment is a discriminatory and racist approach fueled by fear, hatred, insecurity, enmity, humiliation and similar feelings towards Syrians in Turkey. With the Syrian Civil War that started in 2011, Syrians who came to Turkey are exposed to discrimination in many areas. According to researcher Şenay Özden, racist attitudes and discourses towards Syrians in Turkey increased with the thought that refugees are permanent in Turkey. 92% of Syrians living in Turkey state that they are exposed to discrimination.

Turkish–Islamic synthesis is a type of Turkish nationalism which has an Islamist leaning instead of secular.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 "Palestinians Were Spared Turkey's Rising anti-Arab Hate. Until Now". Haaretz. 2019-07-16. Archived from the original on 2019-08-26. Retrieved 2019-08-27.
  2. ↑ "An assault on a Kuwaiti tourist exposes extent and risks of anti-Arab sentiment in Turkey". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  3. ↑ "How increasing racism has changed the Arab perception of Turkey". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  4. ↑ "Focus - Anti-Arab sentiment sweeps Turkey, home to world's largest refugee population". France 24. 2022-01-17. Retrieved 2024-04-11.
  5. ↑ Tremblay, Pinar (2014-08-21). "Anti-Arab sentiment on rise in Turkey". Al-Monitor. Archived from the original on 2019-08-27. Retrieved 2019-08-27.
  6. ↑ "Turkey repeating Ottoman Empire's crimes against Arabs". Arab News. 2020-07-21. Retrieved 2023-03-01.
  7. ↑ "Syrian refugees who were welcomed in Turkey now face backlash". NBC News. 18 March 2019. Archived from the original on 2021-05-09. Retrieved 2019-08-27.
  8. ↑ AKTURK, AHMET SERDAR (2010). "Arabs in Kemalist Turkish Historiography". Middle Eastern Studies. 46 (5): 633–653. doi:10.1080/00263206.2010.504553. JSTOR   20775068. S2CID   145675272.
  9. ↑ https://www.cairn-int.info/abstract-E_HER_160_0319--arabs-and-turks-so-close-yet-so-far.htm
  10. ↑ Mammone, Andrea; Godin, Emmanuel; Jenkins, Brian (2013-05-07). Varieties of Right-Wing Extremism in Europe. Routledge. ISBN   9781136167515. Archived from the original on 2021-05-14. Retrieved 2020-11-24.
  11. ↑ "Turkmens: The Turkish minority fighting for survival in Syria". ABC News. 2015-11-25. Archived from the original on 2020-11-08. Retrieved 2019-11-30.
  12. ↑ "Refworld | Iraq: Iraqi-Turkmen (Turkomen); treatment by Iraqi government, security and police personnel as well as general public". Archived from the original on 2021-05-14. Retrieved 2019-11-30.
  13. ↑ "Turkey's Nativist Turn against Syrian Refugees and Other Arabs". Archived from the original on 2019-10-14. Retrieved 2019-09-25.
  14. ↑ "Suriyeli algısı: "Irkçılık kalıcı oldukları anlaşıldığında arttı"".
  15. ↑ "Suriyelilere nefret kampanyası". www.cumhuriyet.com.tr (in Turkish). 22 July 2019. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  16. ↑ Tokyay, Menekse (2020-06-12). "Araştırma: İstanbullular Suriyeli komşularından 'endişeli'". euronews (in Turkish). Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  17. 1 2 Yazarlar Osman Bahadır Dinçer; Vittoria Federici; Elizabeth Ferris; Sema Karaca; Kemal Kirişci; Elif Özmenek Çarmıklı (November 2013). SURİYELİ MÜLTECİLER KRİZİ VE TÜRKİYE SONU GELMEYEN MİSAFİRLİK [Syrian Refugee Crisis and Permanent Guests in Turkey](PDF) (Report) (in Turkish). Ankara, Turkey: BROOKINGS ENSTİTÜSÜ [Brookings Institution]. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  18. 1 2 "Growing Anti-Syrian Sentiment in Turkey". The Washington Institute. 2021-01-25. Archived from the original on 2021-01-25. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  19. ↑ "Araştırma: İstanbul'da Suriyeli sığınmacılara yönelik tehdit algıları kemikleşiyor". Euronews. 2020-06-18. Archived from the original on 2020-06-18. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  20. ↑ "Türkiye'deki Suriyeliler: Gidenler ve kalanlar ne düşünüyor, onları istemeyenler ne diyor?". BBC News Türkçe. 2019-02-10. Archived from the original on 2019-02-10. Retrieved 2022-04-13. Raporda, şiddet olaylarının yaşanma olasılığının yerel halkın Suriyelileri kültürel olarak farklı gördüğü ve kayıt dışı çalışan Suriyeli işçi veya işletme sahipleri ile rekabet etmekte zorlandığı durumlarda daha yüksek olduğu ifade ediliyor." (Machine translation: "[The report says the likelihood of violence is higher when locals view Syrians culturally distinct and have difficulty competing with Syrian workers or business owners who work informally.])
  21. ↑ "Syrians in Turkey continue to face rise in discrimination | Al Arabiya English". 2021-08-19. Archived from the original on 2021-08-19. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  22. ↑ Koytak, Huseyin Zeyd; Celik, Muhammed Hasan (2022-08-06). "A Text Mining Approach to Determinants of Attitude Towards Syrian Immigration in the Turkish Twittersphere". Social Science Computer Review: 089443932211174. doi:10.1177/08944393221117460. ISSN   0894-4393. S2CID   251434125.
  23. 1 2 "Abuses against Syrians in Turkey: Fueled by hate speech, amplified by propaganda – Syria Direct". 2021-03-30. Archived from the original on 2021-03-30. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  24. ↑ "Türkiye'de yaşayan Suriyelilerin ayrımcılıkla mücadelesi | TÜRKİYE | DW | 20.06.2019". Deutsche Welle . 2019-06-21. Archived from the original on 2019-06-21. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  25. ↑ "Yılbaşı kutlamalarıyla gündeme gelen Suriyeliler ve nefret söylemi | Euronews". 2019-01-05. Archived from the original on 2019-01-05. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  26. ↑ "En Büyük Kaygıları Irkçılık ve Ekonomik Koşullar". Amerika'nin Sesi | Voice of America - Turkish (in Turkish). 20 June 2021. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  27. ↑ "Irkçılık ilkokula indi: Suriyeli çocukların öğretmenleri 'çaresiz'". Archived from the original on 2019-07-24. Retrieved 2022-04-13.
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