Bolosoma

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Bolosoma
Bolosoma sp. on Sibelius Seamount.jpg
Bolosoma spp. on Sibelius Seamount
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Porifera
Class: Hexactinellida
Order: Lyssacinosida
Family: Euplectellidae
Ijima, 1904 [1]
Genus: Bolosoma
(Ijima, 1904)
Type species
Bolosoma paradictyum Ijima, 1903
Species
See text
Synonyms
  • Placosoma(Ijima, 1903)

Bolosoma is a genus of pedunculated siliceous sponges belonging to the family Euplectellidae. This genus lives in deep-sea environments and provides a habitat for a plethora of other benthic species, giving Bolosoma an incredibly important ecological role in the ecosystems it is a part of.

Contents

Brittle stars and other deep-sea invertebrates use this Bolosoma species as a habitat Bolosoma Symbionts.jpg
Brittle stars and other deep-sea invertebrates use this Bolosoma species as a habitat

Species

Bolosoma currently contains nine species. [1]

Description

The body plans of this genus all consist of the main body suspended above the substrate by the peduncle. This main body can exhibit a variety of forms, such as fungiform or vase-like. This genus exhibits the leuconoid form, containing its choanocytes in a series of unlinked chambers. [2]

In terms of their visible-to-the-naked-eye megasclere spicules, all Bolosoma species have two-rayed diactin spicules forming one or more parts of their body structure. For all currently surveyed species, basalia spicules were found to be diactines, with the peduncle being shaped by long diactines. The choanosoma, atrialia, and dermalia spicules of most Bolosoma species consist mainly of diactines, with six-rayed hexactin and five-rayed pentactin spicules also present in lower concentrations. [3] In species with hexactin dermalia the ray of each spicule directed outside of the sponge wall is wider than the other rays. In species with hexactin atrialia the spicule ray facing inward towards the center of the body is wider than the other rays. [4]

The microscopic microsclere spicules of this genus vary greatly by species. Some common microscleres found in Bolosoma species' skeletons are the ball shaped discohexasters and the many-armed branching codonhexasters, the latter of which may have anchor-like structures at the ends of its branches.

Habitat and distribution

The Bolosoma are benthic organisms that live exclusively in the deep sea, preferring hard, rocky substrates such as old lava flows. This genus is found as deep as over 3,700 meters in some parts of the Pacific Ocean. [5] In these environments, Bolosoma species can be the dominant benthic species, being incredibly common in areas such as seamounts. [6] The substrate Bolosoma can grow on varies, with this genus being found on polymetallic nodules and softer surrounding sediments in areas such as the Clarion-Clipperton fracture zone. [7] Of the currently nine identified species in genus Bolosoma, all live exclusively in the Pacific Ocean with the exception of Bolosoma perezi, which can be found in the Rio Grande Rise in the Atlantic Ocean. [3]

Ecology

Siliceous sponges such as Bolosoma are habitat-building species, with many groups such as echinoderms and marine worms living on them. [8] Even when dead, Bolosoma peduncles can provide structure for organisms like ophiuroids. [6] Similar to many other taxa of deep-water suspension feeders, the diet and feeding habits of Bolosoma are relatively unknown due to lack of study. [9] The reproductive dynamics of Bolosoma likewise are relatively unknown.

Due to their habitat-building ecological role, deep-sea siliceous sponges such as Bolosoma have been used as indicator taxa of the stability of the ecosystems they inhabit, especially for vulnerable marine ecosystems on seamounts. By observing how healthy the populations of Hexactinellida sponges like Bolosoma are in commercially important environments such as the Emperor Seamount Chain, scientists can draw conclusions about how best to manage fishing practices in those areas. [8]

Specimen: AMegascleres: B, D, and E: hexactines, C: diactin, F: close view of a hexactine distal ray, Microscleres:G and H: discohexasters, I and J: codonhexasters, K: anchor-like end of a condonhexaster Bolosoma perezi (10.7717-peerj.9431) Figure 6.png
Specimen: AMegascleres: B, D, and E: hexactines, C: diactin, F: close view of a hexactine distal ray, Microscleres:G and H: discohexasters, I and J: codonhexasters, K: anchor-like end of a condonhexaster

Conservation

While the conservation status of Bolosoma has not been thoroughly studied, this genus and similar taxa are threatened by some notable human activities. Siliceous sponge genera such as Bolosoma are commonly found on polymetallic nodules, and future deep-sea mining of those areas represents a serious threat to those genera and species that live on them. [7]

In response to unusually high suspended sediment concentrations in the surrounding water, siliceous sponges will stop actively pumping water, causing them to be unable to access food or expel waste. Trawling can cause highly increased suspended sediment concentrations, which causes nearby siliceous sponges to stop filtering and face adverse health effects. [9]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hexasterophora</span> Subclass of Hexactinellid sponges

Hexasterophora are a subclass of glass sponges in the class Hexactinellida. Most living hexasterophorans can be divided into three orders: Lyssacinosida, Lychniscosida, and Sceptrulophora. Like other glass sponges, hexasterophorans have skeletons composed of overlapping six-rayed spicules. In addition, they can be characterized by the presence of hexasters, a type of microsclere with six rays unfurling into multi-branched structures.

<i>Chondrocladia</i> Genus of sponges

Chondrocladia is a genus of carnivorous demosponges of the family Cladorhizidae. Neocladia was long considered a junior synonym, but recently become accepted as a distinct genus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Homosclerophorida</span> Order of marine sponges

Homosclerophorida is an order of marine sponges. It is the only order in the monotypic class Homoscleromorpha. The order is composed of two families: Plakinidae and Oscarellidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyssacinosida</span> Order of sponges

Lyssacinosida is an order of glass sponges (Hexactinellida) belonging to the subclass Hexasterophora. These sponges can be recognized by their parenchymal spicules usually being unconnected, unlike in other sponges in the subclass where the spicules form a more or less tightly connected skeleton. Lyssacine sponges have existed since the Upper Ordovician, and three families are still alive today. The Venus' flower basket is one of the most well-known and culturally significant of the glass sponges.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sponge spicule</span> Structural element of sea sponges

Spicules are structural elements found in most sponges. The meshing of many spicules serves as the sponge's skeleton and thus it provides structural support and potentially defense against predators.

Cladorhiza inversa is a species of sponge in the taxonomic class Demospongiae. The body of the sponge consists of a spicule and fibers and is water absorbent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Euplectellidae</span> Family of sponges

Euplectellidae is a family of glass sponges (Hexactinellids) belonging to the order Lyssacinosa, first represented in the Ordovician fossil record, substantially older than molecular estimates of the clade's age.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rossellidae</span> Family of sponges

Rossellidae is a family of glass sponges belonging to the order Lyssacinosa. The family has a cosmopolitan distribution and is found at a large range of depths.

<i>Staurocalyptus</i> Genus of sponges

Staurocalyptus is a genus of sponge. It was circumscribed in 1897 by Isao Ijima.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amphidiscosida</span> Order of sponges

Amphidiscosida is an order of hexactinellids. The Amphidiscosida are commonly regarded as the only living sponges in the subclass Amphidiscophora.

<i>Verongula</i> Genus of sponges

Verongula is a genus of sea sponges in the family Aplysinidae.

Amphidiscella is a genus of sea sponge in the family Euplectellidae.

Sceptrulophora is an order of hexactinellid sponges. They are characterized by sceptrules, a type of microsclere with a single straight rod terminating at a bundle of spines or knobs. An anchor- or nail-shaped sceptrule is called a clavule. A fork-shaped sceptrule, ending at a few large tines, is called a scopule. A broom-shaped sceptrule, ending at many small bristles, is called a sarule.

Claviscopulia is a genus of glass sponge in the family Farreidae.

<i>Rossella</i> (sponge) Genus of glass sponges

Rosella is a genus of glass sponges in the family Rossellidae. It is found in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic regions.

<i>Abyssocladia</i> Genus of sponges

Abyssocladia is a genus of the family Cladorhizidae, a family of carnivorous sponges. It is made up of at least 39 species found in oceans all over the world.

<i>Advhena</i> Genus of sponges

Advhena is a monotypic genus of glass sponges in the family Euplectellidae. It contains the single species Advhena magnifica, also known as the E.T. sponge, after the titular character in the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial.

Caulophacus brandti is a species of glass sponges belonging to the subfamily Lanuginellinae. It is known from type specimens found in the Weddell Sea. The specific epithet was given in honor of Angelika Brandt.

Caulophacus discohexactinus is a species of glass sponges belonging to the subfamily Lanuginellinae. It is known from a type specimen found in the Weddell Sea. The specific epithet was given to refer to the discohexactine shape of the species' microscleres.

References

  1. 1 2 de Voogd, N.J.; Alvarez, B.; Boury-Esnault, N.; Carballo, J.L.; Cárdenas, P.; Díaz, M.-C.; Dohrmann, M.; Downey, R.; Goodwin, C.; Hajdu, E.; Hooper, J.N.A.; Kelly, M.; Klautau, M.; Lim, S.C.; Manconi, R.; Morrow, C.; Pinheiro, U.; Pisera, A.B.; Ríos, P.; Rützler, K.; Schönberg, C.; Vacelet, J.; van Soest, R.W.M.; Xavier, J. (2023). Van Soest RW, Boury-Esnault N, Hooper JN, Rützler K, de Voogd NJ, de Glasby BA, Hajdu E, Pisera AB, Manconi R, Schoenberg C, Janussen D, Tabachnick KR, Klautau M, Picton B, Kelly M, Vacelet J (eds.). "Bolosoma Ijima, 1904". World Porifera database. World Register of Marine Species . Retrieved 28 March 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ↑ Godefoy, Nelly (September 3, 2019). "Sponge digestive system diversity and evolution: filter feeding to carnivory". Cell and Tissue Research. 377 (3): 341–351. doi:10.1007/s00441-019-03032-8. PMID   31053892. S2CID   143432106 . Retrieved 2022-04-13.
  3. 1 2 Castello-Branco, Cristiana; Collins, Allen G.; Hajdu, Eduardo (2020-07-09). "A collection of hexactinellids (Porifera) from the deep South Atlantic and North Pacific: new genus, new species and new records". PeerJ. 8: e9431. doi: 10.7717/peerj.9431 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   7354842 . PMID   32714660.
  4. ↑ Tabachnick, Konstantin (2002). "Family Euplectellidae Gray, 1867". Systema Porifera. pp. 1388–1434. doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0747-5_146. ISBN   978-0-306-47260-2.
  5. ↑ Karl, McLetchie; Kelley, Elliott; Elizabeth, Lobecker; Santiago, Herrera; Matt, Jackson (2017). "Okeanos Explorer ROV dive summary, EX1702, Dive 5, February 20, 2017".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. 1 2 Karl, McLetchie; Kelley, Elliott; Elizabeth, Lobecker; Santiago, Herrera; Matt, Jackson (2017). "Okeanos Explorer ROV dive summary, EX1702, Dive 12, February 27, 2017".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  7. 1 2 Kersken, Daniel; Kocot, Kevin; Janussen, Dorte; Schell, Tilman; Pfenninger, Markus; Martínez Arbizu, Pedro (2018-04-01). "First insights into the phylogeny of deep-sea glass sponges (Hexactinellida) from polymetallic nodule fields in the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ), northeastern Pacific". Hydrobiologia. 811 (1): 283–293. doi:10.1007/s10750-017-3498-3. ISSN   1573-5117. S2CID   3780848.
  8. 1 2 Dautova, T. N.; Galkin, S. V.; Tabachnik, K. R.; Minin, K. V.; Kireev, P. A.; Moskovtseva, A. V.; Adrianov, A. V. (2019-11-01). "The First Data on the Structure of Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems of the Emperor Chain Seamounts: Indicator Taxa, Landscapes, and Biogeography". Russian Journal of Marine Biology. 45 (6): 408–417. doi:10.1134/S1063074019060026. ISSN   1608-3377. S2CID   211067738.
  9. 1 2 Yahel, Gitai; Whitney, Frank; Reiswig, Henry M.; Eerkes-Medrano, Dafne I.; Leys, Sally P. (January 16, 2007). "In situ feeding and metabolism of glass sponges (Hexactinellida, Porifera) studied in a deep temperate fjord with a remotely operated submersible". Limnology and Oceanography. 52 (1): 428–440. Bibcode:2007LimOc..52..428Y. doi:10.4319/lo.2007.52.1.0428. S2CID   86297053.
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