Bright's disease

Bright's disease
Bright's disease
	Diseased kidney from Richard Bright's Reports of Medical Cases Longman, London (1827–1831); Wellcome Library, London
Specialty	Nephrology

Last updated November 20, 2024

Bright's disease is a historical classification of kidney diseases that are described in modern medicine as acute or chronic nephritis.^[1] It was characterized by swelling and the presence of albumin in the urine, and was frequently accompanied by high blood pressure and heart disease.

Signs and symptoms

The symptoms and signs of Bright's disease were first described in 1827 by the English physician Richard Bright, after whom the disease was named. In his Reports of Medical Cases,^[2] he described 25 cases of dropsy (edema) which he attributed to kidney disease. Symptoms and signs included: inflammation of serous membranes, haemorrhages, apoplexy, convulsions, blindness and coma.^[3]^[4] Many of these cases were found to have albumin in their urine (detected by the spoon and candle-heat coagulation), and showed striking morbid changes of the kidneys at post-mortem.^[5] The triad of dropsy, albumin in the urine and kidney disease came to be regarded as characteristic of Bright's disease.^[3]

Subsequent work by Bright and others indicated an association with cardiac hypertrophy, which Bright attributed to stimulation of the heart. Frederick Akbar Mahomed showed that a rise in blood pressure could precede the appearance of albumin in the urine, and the rise in blood pressure and increased resistance to flow was believed to explain the cardiac hypertrophy.^[4]

It is today known that Bright's disease is caused by a wide and diverse range of kidney diseases;^[1]^[5]^[6] thus, the term Bright's disease is retained for historical application but not in modern diagnosis.^[7] The disease was diagnosed frequently in diabetic patients;^[4] at least some of these cases would probably correspond to a modern diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy.

Treatment

Bright's disease was historically treated with warm baths, blood-letting, squill, digitalis, mercuric compounds, opium, diuretics, laxatives ^[2]^[8] and dietary therapy, including abstinence from alcoholic drinks, cheese and red meat. Arnold Ehret was diagnosed with Bright's disease and pronounced incurable by 24 of Europe's most respected doctors; he designed The Mucusless Diet Healing System, which apparently cured his illness. William Howard Hay, had the illness and, it is claimed, cured himself using the Hay diet.^[9]

Society and culture

List of people diagnosed with Bright's disease

Tennessee Williams had it as a child, resulting from diphtheria. He was unable to walk for a long time
Alfred H. Terry, an important Union Major General and, later, commanding officer of Lt. Colonel George Armstrong Custer. Died 16 December 1890, New Haven, Connecticut.
Hall of Fame member and Detroit Tigers center fielder Ty Cobb was diagnosed with a list of ailments, including Bright's disease, in 1959.^[10]^[11]
Frederick William Faber, Catholic priest and author, died on 26 September 1863.
George-Étienne Cartier, Canadian Father of Confederation, died on 20 May 1873.^[12]
Rowland Hussey Macy Sr., an American businessman and founder of the department store chain R.H. Macy & Company, died on 29 March 1877 in Paris.
Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy, barrister and parliamentarian, died on 4 May 1879.
Tabeguache Ute chief Ouray died of Bright's disease on 24 August 1880.
Catherine Eddowes, victim of Jack the Ripper, was found to be in the advanced stages of Bright's disease when she died.
The famous dwarf Commodore Nutt died in New York on 25 May 1881.
Alice Hathaway Lee Roosevelt, first wife of Theodore Roosevelt, died on 14 February 1884 due to kidney failure caused by Bright's disease that was worsened due to pregnancy.^[13]
Gregor Mendel died on 6 January 1884 at the age of 61.^[14]
American tennis pioneer Mary Ewing Outerbridge died at the age of 34, on 3 May 1886.
Poet Emily Dickinson died 15 May 1886.^[15]
Chester A. Arthur, 21st President of the United States, died 18 November 1886.^[16]
Swedish-American mechanical engineer John Ericsson, most famous for designing USS Monitor, died on 8 March 1889.^[17]
American Major League Baseball pitcher, Larry Corcoran, died 14 October 1891.
Paul Anderson, American Olympic gold medallist weightlifter, died 15 August 1994. In 1961, he and his wife Glenda founded the Paul Anderson Youth Home in Vidalia, Georgia.
Charles H. Spurgeon, London pastor known as "The Prince of Preachers", died in 1892 at the age of 57 of Bright's disease.^[18]
Famed gunfighter Luke Short was diagnosed with Bright's disease in early 1893, but died on 8 September of that year due to edema.
Union general Francis C. Barlow, who had played an important role in the American Civil War, died on 11 January 1896.
Federal Judge Isaac C. Parker died on 17 November 1896, in Fort Smith, Arkansas.^[19]
Soldier and ornithologist Charles Bendire died in 1897.^[20]
Actress Caroline Miskel Hoyt, aged 25, died 2 October 1898, after childbirth.^[21]
Socialite Katherine Jane Chase, daughter of Supreme Court Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, died 31 July 1899, at age 58.
John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute, the Victorian aristocrat and industrial magnate whose vast expenditure on buildings makes him the pre-eminent architectural patron of the 19th century. Diagnosed with Bright's disease and died after multiple strokes on 9 October 1900.
American bare-knuckle heavyweight champion Paddy Ryan died on 14 December 1900 in Green Island, New York. Bright's was not an entirely uncommon disease among early boxers who took frequent pounding to the abdomen in their careers.^[22]
32nd Speaker of the US House of Representatives Thomas Brackett Reed (18 October 1839 – 7 December 1902), American politician from the state of Maine, died in Washington, D.C.^[23]
Roswell Eaton Goodell, American politician and businessman who died of Bright's disease on 9 October 1903, in Denver, Colorado.^[24]^[25]
Victorian actress Helena Modjeska, died on 8 April 1909.^[26]
North Dakota Senator Martin Nelson Johnson, died on 21 October 1909.^[27]
Old West lawman Bass Reeves' death in 1910 was attributed to this disease.^[28]
Charles Cotton, English footballer who died on 3 January 1910 after a five-week illness.^[29]
American illustrator Howard Pyle died 9 November 1911.^[30]
Warren S. Johnson, founder of Johnson Controls, died on 5 December 1911, at the age of 64.
James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States from 1909 until his death in 1912.^[31]
Okakura Kakuzo, Japanese scholar, died on 2 September 1913.
Ellen Axson Wilson, first wife of Woodrow Wilson, died on 6 August 1914.^[32]
Richard Warren Sears, an American businessman and founder of the department store chain Sears, Roebuck and Company, died on 28 September 1914 in Waukesha, Wisconsin.^[33]
Woodsman Louis "French Louie" Seymour died on 28 February 1915.
John Bunny, comic star of the early motion picture era, died on 26 April 1915.
Australian cricketer Victor Trumper died at age 37, in June 1915.
Booker T. Washington, founder of Tuskegee University, died in November 1915.
Albert Carl "Al" Ringling (1852–1916), eldest of the Ringling brothers, died at the age of 63 in Wisconsin.^[34]
Charles Sumner Sedgwick, architect based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, died in 1922.
Baseball Hall of Famer Ross Youngs died on 22 October 1927.
19th-century stage actress Alice Harrison died of Bright's disease in 1896.^[35]
Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz began suffering from Bright's disease in 1900, and died on 18 May 1909.
Robert Stroud "the birdman of Alcatraz" was diagnosed with Bright's disease in Leavenworth prison shortly after he began his original sentence.
James McHenry Jones, African American educator, school administrator, businessperson, and minister.^[36]
Billy Miske, American light heavyweight and heavyweight boxer, who once fought Jack Dempsey for the World Heavyweight Boxing title, died from Bright's disease on 1 January 1924 (aged 29).
Jimmy Sebring, played in the 1903 World Series with the Pittsburgh Pirates and was the first player in World Series history to hit a home run. He died of Bright's disease 22 December 1909 at the age of 27.
Kitty Kiernan, fiancée of Irish Revolutionary Michael Collins, died of complications thought to be related to Bright's disease on 25 July 1945.
Kate Shelley, railroad heroine and the first woman in the United States to have a bridge named after her, the Kate Shelley High Bridge, died of Bright's disease on 21 January 1912.^[37]
Henry Hobson Richardson, prominent North American architect, best known for his work in a style that became known as Richardsonian Romanesque, died of Bright's disease on 27 April 1886 (aged 47).
Wayne Munn, professional wrestler and collegiate football player, died of Bright's disease in 1931.
Mathew B. Brady, early American photographer, died of Bright's disease on 15 January 1896.^[38]
Marcus Daly, Irish immigrant, Copper King of Butte, Montana; discoverer of copper riches in Anaconda mine; founder of Anaconda, MT; first president of Amalgamated/Anaconda Copper Co.; died of Bright's disease 11/12/1900 in New York City.^[39]
Virgilio Tojetti, an Italian-American painter^[40] the son of Domenico Tojetti. He died of Bright's disease on 27 March 1901, and his death was reported in the New York Times the next day.^[41]
Lizzie Halliday, an Irish-American serial killer, died of Bright's disease on 28 June 1918 after spending nearly half her life in a mental asylum.
Henry Chapman Mercer, a famous tile-maker, archeologist, and collector from Doylestown, Pennsylvania died of Bright's disease on 9 March 1930.
Thomas Bowyer, who found the body of Mary Jane Kelly, a victim of Jack the Ripper, in 1888.
Sydney Greenstreet, a British actor, died of Bright's disease on 18 January 1954. He is remembered for The Maltese Falcon , Casablanca , and Passage to Marseille .
Winifred Holtby, a British writer, died of Bright's disease on 29 September 1935. She is remembered for South Riding , her biography of Virginia Woolf, and her journalism and feminist writings.
Charles B. Clark, a U.S. Representative from Wisconsin and one of the founders of the Kimberly-Clark Corporation

Related Research Articles

Clinical chemistry is a division in medical laboratory sciences focusing on qualitative tests of important compounds, referred to as analytes or markers, in bodily fluids and tissues using analytical techniques and specialized instruments. This interdisciplinary field includes knowledge from medicine, biology, chemistry, biomedical engineering, informatics, and an applied form of biochemistry.

Proteinuria is the presence of excess proteins in the urine. In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein, less than 150 mg/day; an excess is suggestive of illness. Excess protein in the urine often causes the urine to become foamy. Severe proteinuria can cause nephrotic syndrome in which there is worsening swelling of the body.

Nephrotic syndrome is a collection of symptoms due to kidney damage. This includes protein in the urine, low blood albumin levels, high blood lipids, and significant swelling. Other symptoms may include weight gain, feeling tired, and foamy urine. Complications may include blood clots, infections, and high blood pressure.

Nephritis is inflammation of the kidneys and may involve the glomeruli, tubules, or interstitial tissue surrounding the glomeruli and tubules. It is one of several different types of nephropathy.

Urinalysis, a portmanteau of the words urine and analysis, is a panel of medical tests that includes physical (macroscopic) examination of the urine, chemical evaluation using urine test strips, and microscopic examination. Macroscopic examination targets parameters such as color, clarity, odor, and specific gravity; urine test strips measure chemical properties such as pH, glucose concentration, and protein levels; and microscopy is performed to identify elements such as cells, urinary casts, crystals, and organisms.

Assessment of kidney function occurs in different ways, using the presence of symptoms and signs, as well as measurements using urine tests, blood tests, and medical imaging.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a type of long-term kidney disease, in which either there is a gradual loss of kidney function which occurs over a period of months to years, or an abnormal kidney structure. Initially generally no symptoms are seen, but later symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, and confusion. Complications can relate to hormonal dysfunction of the kidneys and include high blood pressure, bone disease, and anemia. Additionally CKD patients have markedly increased cardiovascular complications with increased risks of death and hospitalization. CKD can lead to kidney failure requiring kidney dialysis or kidney transplantation.

Serum albumin, often referred to simply as blood albumin, is an albumin found in vertebrate blood. Human serum albumin is encoded by the ALB gene. Other mammalian forms, such as bovine serum albumin, are chemically similar.

Diabetic nephropathy, also known as diabetic kidney disease, is the chronic loss of kidney function occurring in those with diabetes mellitus. Diabetic nephropathy is the leading causes of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) globally. The triad of protein leaking into the urine, rising blood pressure with hypertension and then falling renal function is common to many forms of CKD. Protein loss in the urine due to damage of the glomeruli may become massive, and cause a low serum albumin with resulting generalized body swelling (edema) so called nephrotic syndrome. Likewise, the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) may progressively fall from a normal of over 90 ml/min/1.73m² to less than 15, at which point the patient is said to have end-stage renal disease. It usually is slowly progressive over years.

Hypertensive kidney disease is a medical condition referring to damage to the kidney due to chronic high blood pressure. It manifests as hypertensive nephrosclerosis. It should be distinguished from renovascular hypertension, which is a form of secondary hypertension, and thus has opposite direction of causation.

Minimal change disease (MCD), also known as lipoid nephrosis or nil disease, among others, is a disease affecting the kidneys which causes nephrotic syndrome. Nephrotic syndrome leads to the loss of significant amounts of protein to the urine (proteinuria), which causes the widespread edema and impaired kidney function commonly experienced by those affected by the disease. It is most common in children and has a peak incidence at 2 to 6 years of age. MCD is responsible for 10–25% of nephrotic syndrome cases in adults. It is also the most common cause of nephrotic syndrome of unclear cause (idiopathic) in children.

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Nephritic syndrome is a syndrome comprising signs of nephritis, which is kidney disease involving inflammation. It often occurs in the glomerulus, where it is called glomerulonephritis. Glomerulonephritis is characterized by inflammation and thinning of the glomerular basement membrane and the occurrence of small pores in the podocytes of the glomerulus. These pores become large enough to permit both proteins and red blood cells to pass into the urine. By contrast, nephrotic syndrome is characterized by proteinuria and a constellation of other symptoms that specifically do not include hematuria. Nephritic syndrome, like nephrotic syndrome, may involve low level of albumin in the blood due to the protein albumin moving from the blood to the urine.

Microalbuminuria is a term to describe a moderate increase in the level of urine albumin. It occurs when the kidney leaks small amounts of albumin into the urine, in other words, when an abnormally high permeability for albumin in the glomerulus of the kidney occurs. Normally, the kidneys filter albumin, so if albumin is found in the urine, then it is a marker of kidney disease. The term microalbuminuria is now discouraged by Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes and has been replaced by moderately increased albuminuria.

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The Ringling brothers were five American siblings who transformed their small touring company of performers into one of the largest circuses in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Four brothers were born in McGregor, Iowa: Alfred T., Charles, John and Henry William, and the family lived in McGregor for twelve years, from 1860 until 1872. The Ringling family then moved to Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, and finally settled in Baraboo, Wisconsin, in 1875. They were of German and French descent, the children of harness maker Heinrich Friedrich August Ringling (1826–1898) of Hanover, and Marie Salome Juliar (1833–1907) of Ostheim, in Alsace. While there were seven Ringling brothers, Alfred, Charles, John, Al and Otto Ringling were the main brothers in charge of the circus shows. All of the brothers were Freemasons. In 1919, they merged their Ringling Brothers Circus with America's other leading circus troupe, Barnum and Bailey, ultimately creating the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, which has operated continuously since except for a hiatus from 2017 to 2022.

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References

1 2 Cameron, J. S. (14 October 1972). "Bright's Disease Today: The Pathogenesis and Treatment of Glomerulonephritis—I". British Medical Journal. 4 (5832): 87–90. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5832.87. ISSN 0007-1447. PMC 1786202 . PMID 4562073.
1 2 Bright, R (1827–1831). Reports of Medical Cases, Selected with a View of Illustrating the Symptoms and Cure of Diseases by a Reference to Morbid Anatomy, vol. I. London: Longmans.
1 2 Millard, Henry B. (1 January 1884). A treatise on Bright's disease of the kidneys; its pathology, diagnosis, and treatment . New York, W. Wood & Company.
1 2 3 "A treatise on Bright's disease and diabetes: with especial reference to pathology and therapeutics". archive.org. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
1 2 Peitzman, Steven J. (1 January 1989). "From Dropsy to Bright's Disease to End-Stage Renal Disease". The Milbank Quarterly. 67: 16–32. doi:10.2307/3350183. JSTOR 3350183. PMID 2682170. S2CID 8806903.
↑ Wolf G (2002). "Friedrich Theodor von Frerichs (1819–1885) and Bright's disease". American Journal of Nephrology. 22 (5–6): 596–602. doi:10.1159/000065291. PMID 12381966. S2CID 42309693.
↑ Peitzman SJ (1989). "From dropsy to Bright's disease to end-stage renal disease". The Milbank Quarterly. 67 (Suppl 1): 16–32. doi:10.2307/3350183. JSTOR 3350183. PMID 2682170. S2CID 8806903.
↑ Saundby, Robert (22 October 2013). Lectures on Bright's Disease. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9781483195360.
↑ Gilman, Goldwin Smith Professor of Human Studies Sander L.; Gilman, Sander L. (23 January 2008). Diets and Dieting: A Cultural Encyclopedia . Routledge. ISBN 9781135870683.
↑ Hill, John Paul (18 November 2002). "Ty Cobb (1886–1961)". New Georgia Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on 5 August 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2007.
↑ "Did You Know?". The Ty Cobb Museum. Archived from the original on December 30, 2006. Retrieved February 26, 2007.
↑ "Death of Cartier". Archived from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
↑ Commire, Anne (1999). Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia . Yorkin Publications.
↑ "Gregor Mendel | Biography, Experiments, & Facts | Britannica". 29 December 2023.
↑ "Emily Dickinson and Death – Emily Dickinson Museum". Emily Dickinson and Death. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
↑ "Chester Alan Arthur - Fighting a Hidden Illness | Arizona Health Sciences Library". ahsl.arizona.edu. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
↑ Church, W.C. (1892). The Life of John Ericsson. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co. pp. 320–323.
↑ Nettles, Tom. Living by Revealed Truth: The Life and Pastoral Theology of Charles Haddon Spurgeon (Ross-Shire, Scotland: Mentor Imprint, 2013), 599-600
↑
- Leeper, Maranda (2014). Lancaster, Guy (ed.). Arkansas in Ink: Gunslingers, Ghosts, and Other Graphic Tales. University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 9781935106739.
↑ Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael (2003). Whose Bird? Common Bird Names and the People They Commemorate. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-300-10359-5. LCCN 2003113608.
↑ "Death of Mrs. Caroline Hoyt". The Wilmington Daily Republican. 3 October 1898. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
↑ "Paddy Ryan Ill", The Allentown Leader, Allentown, Pennsylvania, pp. 2, 11, December 1900.
↑ Grant, James (15 May 2012). Mr. Speaker!: The Life and Times of Thomas B. Reed - The Man Who Broke the Filibuster. Simon and Schuster. p. 373. ISBN 9781416544944 . Retrieved 13 January 2015.
↑ "Col. Roswell Eaton Goodell, One of Lincoln's Democratic Friends". Indianapolis Journal. Vol. 53, no. 293. 20 October 1903. Retrieved 1 June 2020.
↑ "HEADS OF THE CHICAGO POLICE DEPARTMENT". ChicagoCop.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.
↑ "Modjeska Woman Triumphant Movie". Modjeskawomantriumphantmovie.com. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
↑ "North Dakota Senator Pass'd Away at Fargo". The Bismarck Tribune. 22 October 1909. p. 1. Retrieved 22 July 2015– via Newspapers.com.
↑ "Was the Real Lone Ranger a Black Man?". history.com. 8 November 2021.
↑ kjehan (3 January 1910). "The death of Charles Cotton". Play Up, Liverpool. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
↑ Pitz, Henry (1969). The Brandywine Tradition . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 162. ISBN 9780517164310. LCCN 68028457.
↑ "James S Sherman - Great American Biographies Series". Constitutional Law Reporter. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
↑ "Ellen Wilson Biography :: National First Ladies' Library". Firstladies.org. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2017.
↑ "RICHARD W. SEARS DIES.; Founder of' Sears, .Roebuck & Co. .Began Career as Railroad Employe". The New York Times. 29 September 1914. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 14 March 2022.
↑ "Al. Ringling Dead. Veteran Circus Man Stricken with Bright's disease In Wisconsin" (PDF). The New York Times . 2 January 1916. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
↑ "Alice Harrison | Broadway Photographs". Broadway.cas.sc.edu. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
↑ West Virginia Colored Institute (December 1909). "Calmly As a Little Child Lies Down to Sleep" (PDF). The Institute Monthly. II (IX): 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020– via Drain-Jordan Library, West Virginia State University.
↑ 22 January 1912, Washington Post
↑ "Matthew B. Brady Dead". The New York Sun . 19 January 1896. p. 3. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
↑ Malone, Roeder, Lang (1976). "9". Montana: A History in Two Centuries. U of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97129-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ "Virgilio Tojetti - Two Putti, 1899 Painting for Sale".
↑ "Deaths Reported: Manhattan and Bronx". New York Times . 28 March 1901. Retrieved 18 April 2023.

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[:0-1] 1 2 Cameron, J. S. (14 October 1972). "Bright's Disease Today: The Pathogenesis and Treatment of Glomerulonephritis—I". British Medical Journal. 4 (5832): 87–90. doi:10.1136/bmj.4.5832.87. ISSN 0007-1447. PMC 1786202 . PMID 4562073.

[:1-2] 1 2 Bright, R (1827–1831). Reports of Medical Cases, Selected with a View of Illustrating the Symptoms and Cure of Diseases by a Reference to Morbid Anatomy, vol. I. London: Longmans.

[:2-3] 1 2 Millard, Henry B. (1 January 1884). A treatise on Bright's disease of the kidneys; its pathology, diagnosis, and treatment . New York, W. Wood & Company.

[:3-4] 1 2 3 "A treatise on Bright's disease and diabetes: with especial reference to pathology and therapeutics". archive.org. Retrieved 23 July 2016.

[:4-5] 1 2 Peitzman, Steven J. (1 January 1989). "From Dropsy to Bright's Disease to End-Stage Renal Disease". The Milbank Quarterly. 67: 16–32. doi:10.2307/3350183. JSTOR 3350183. PMID 2682170. S2CID 8806903.

[pmid12381966-6] Wolf G (2002). "Friedrich Theodor von Frerichs (1819–1885) and Bright's disease". American Journal of Nephrology. 22 (5–6): 596–602. doi:10.1159/000065291. PMID 12381966. S2CID 42309693.

[pmid2682170-7] Peitzman SJ (1989). "From dropsy to Bright's disease to end-stage renal disease". The Milbank Quarterly. 67 (Suppl 1): 16–32. doi:10.2307/3350183. JSTOR 3350183. PMID 2682170. S2CID 8806903.

[8] Saundby, Robert (22 October 2013). Lectures on Bright's Disease. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 9781483195360.

[9] Gilman, Goldwin Smith Professor of Human Studies Sander L.; Gilman, Sander L. (23 January 2008). Diets and Dieting: A Cultural Encyclopedia . Routledge. ISBN 9781135870683.

[NGECobb-10] Hill, John Paul (18 November 2002). "Ty Cobb (1886–1961)". New Georgia Encyclopedia . Archived from the original on 5 August 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2007.

[TyCobbMuseumDYK-11] "Did You Know?". The Ty Cobb Museum. Archived from the original on December 30, 2006. Retrieved February 26, 2007.

[12] "Death of Cartier". Archived from the original on 3 July 2022. Retrieved 3 July 2022.

[13] Commire, Anne (1999). Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia . Yorkin Publications.

[14] "Gregor Mendel | Biography, Experiments, & Facts | Britannica". 29 December 2023.

[15] "Emily Dickinson and Death – Emily Dickinson Museum". Emily Dickinson and Death. Retrieved 3 September 2019.

[16] "Chester Alan Arthur - Fighting a Hidden Illness | Arizona Health Sciences Library". ahsl.arizona.edu. Retrieved 3 September 2019.

[17] Church, W.C. (1892). The Life of John Ericsson. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co. pp. 320–323.

[18] Nettles, Tom. Living by Revealed Truth: The Life and Pastoral Theology of Charles Haddon Spurgeon (Ross-Shire, Scotland: Mentor Imprint, 2013), 599-600

[19] 
Leeper, Maranda (2014). Lancaster, Guy (ed.). Arkansas in Ink: Gunslingers, Ghosts, and Other Graphic Tales. University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 9781935106739.

[mwAh4] Leeper, Maranda (2014). Lancaster, Guy (ed.). Arkansas in Ink: Gunslingers, Ghosts, and Other Graphic Tales. University of Arkansas Press. ISBN 9781935106739.

[20] Beolens, Bo; Watkins, Michael (2003). Whose Bird? Common Bird Names and the People They Commemorate. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-0-300-10359-5. LCCN 2003113608.

[21] "Death of Mrs. Caroline Hoyt". The Wilmington Daily Republican. 3 October 1898. Retrieved 25 November 2018.

[22] "Paddy Ryan Ill", The Allentown Leader, Allentown, Pennsylvania, pp. 2, 11, December 1900.

[Grant2012-23] Grant, James (15 May 2012). Mr. Speaker!: The Life and Times of Thomas B. Reed - The Man Who Broke the Filibuster. Simon and Schuster. p. 373. ISBN 9781416544944 . Retrieved 13 January 2015.

[24] "Col. Roswell Eaton Goodell, One of Lincoln's Democratic Friends". Indianapolis Journal. Vol. 53, no. 293. 20 October 1903. Retrieved 1 June 2020.

[25] "HEADS OF THE CHICAGO POLICE DEPARTMENT". ChicagoCop.com. Retrieved 26 May 2020.

[26] "Modjeska Woman Triumphant Movie". Modjeskawomantriumphantmovie.com. Retrieved 14 March 2022.

[27] "North Dakota Senator Pass'd Away at Fargo". The Bismarck Tribune. 22 October 1909. p. 1. Retrieved 22 July 2015– via Newspapers.com.

[28] "Was the Real Lone Ranger a Black Man?". history.com. 8 November 2021.

[29] (3 January 1910). "The death of Charles Cotton". Play Up, Liverpool. Retrieved 14 March 2022.

[30] Pitz, Henry (1969). The Brandywine Tradition . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 162. ISBN 9780517164310. LCCN 68028457.

[31] "James S Sherman - Great American Biographies Series". Constitutional Law Reporter. Retrieved 3 September 2019.

[32] "Ellen Wilson Biography :: National First Ladies' Library". Firstladies.org. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2017.

[33] "RICHARD W. SEARS DIES.; Founder of' Sears, .Roebuck & Co. .Began Career as Railroad Employe". The New York Times. 29 September 1914. ISSN 0362-4331 . Retrieved 14 March 2022.

[34] "Al. Ringling Dead. Veteran Circus Man Stricken with Bright's disease In Wisconsin" (PDF). The New York Times . 2 January 1916. Retrieved 10 October 2018.

[35] "Alice Harrison | Broadway Photographs". Broadway.cas.sc.edu. Retrieved 22 November 2019.

[36] West Virginia Colored Institute (December 1909). "Calmly As a Little Child Lies Down to Sleep" (PDF). The Institute Monthly. II (IX): 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2020– via Drain-Jordan Library, West Virginia State University.

[37] 22 January 1912, Washington Post

[38] "Matthew B. Brady Dead". The New York Sun . 19 January 1896. p. 3. Retrieved 21 July 2022.

[39] Malone, Roeder, Lang (1976). "9". Montana: A History in Two Centuries. U of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97129-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[40] "Virgilio Tojetti - Two Putti, 1899 Painting for Sale".

[41] "Deaths Reported: Manhattan and Bronx". New York Times . 28 March 1901. Retrieved 18 April 2023.

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Bright's disease

Diseased kidney from Richard Bright's Reports of Medical Cases Longman, London (1827–1831); Wellcome Library, London
Specialty	Nephrology