CPEB

Last updated
Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein
CPEB Proteins.jpg
Properties of CPEBs and their interactions with other proteins in RNP complexes
Identifiers
SymbolCPEB
Pfam PF16366
InterPro IPR034819
Available protein structures:
Pfam   structures / ECOD  
PDB RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
PDBsum structure summary

CPEB, or cytoplasmic polyadenylation element binding protein, is a highly conserved RNA-binding protein that promotes the elongation of the polyadenine tail of messenger RNA. [1] CPEB is present at postsynaptic sites and dendrites where it stimulates polyadenylation and translation in response to synaptic activity. [2] CPEB most commonly activates the target RNA for translation, but can also act as a repressor, [3] dependent on its phosphorylation state. [4] As a repressor, CPEB interacts with the deadenylation complex and shortens the polyadenine tail of mRNAs. [5] In animals, CPEB is expressed in several alternative splicing isoforms that are specific to particular tissues and functions, including the self-cleaving Mammalian CPEB3 ribozyme. CPEB was first identified in Xenopus oocytes and associated with meiosis; [2] a role has also been identified in the spermatogenesis of Caenorhabditis elegans . [6]

Contents

CPEB is involved in closed-loop regulation of mRNAs that keeps them inactive. The closed-loop structure between the 3'UTR and 5'UTR inhibits translation. [7] This has been observed in Xenopus laevis in which eIF4E bound to the 5' cap interacts with Maskin bound to CPEB on the 3' UTR creating translationally inactive transcripts. This translational inhibition is lifted once CPEB is phosphorylated, displacing the Maskin binding site, allowing for the polymerization of the PolyA tail, which can recruit the translational machinery by means of PABP. [8] However, [9] is important to note that this mechanism has been under great scrutiny. [10]

CPEB has been shown to shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm. [9] In the nuclei of different organisms, it was found that CPEB helps guide the path of mRNA in the cytoplasm. [2] CPEB was found to be almost exclusively in the c [9] plasm in stage VI Xenopus oocytes. [2] However, a further study on this topic found that there is a substantial amount of CPEB in the nucleus. [9] CPEB can bind with CPE-containing mRNAs in the nucleus, which forces tight translational regulation in the cytoplasm. CPEBs bound to these mRNAs were found to have [11] wer translation efficiency, which is indicative of the translation regulation.

Protein Family

CPEB can also refer to the family of proteins. [11] There are four proteins in the protein family:

This protein family can be divided into two subfamilies. The groups are separated by their [12] ..specific properties in target/motif recognition, large-order complex co-factors, and dynamic properties and regulation during cell cycle." [12] The first subfamily contains only CPEB1 and the second contains CPEB2 - CPEB4. The general CPE that CPEBs bind to has a canonical UUUUAU sequence, which all four of the proteins can recognize. However, CPEB1 can only recognize CPEs with the canonical sequence, while the second group of CPEB2–4 can also bind to variants of the CPE, known as G-variants due to their sequence difference (UUUUGU). This suggests that CPEB2–4 has other targets that it can hit in addition to CPEB1 targets.

Structure

The CPEB structure consists of "...an amino-terminal port [13] with no obvious functional motif, two RNA recognition motifs (RRMS), and a cysteine-histidine region that is reminiscent of a zinc finger." [13] The zinc finger region and RRMs are necessary for RNA bind. [13] It was found that CPEB bound to other metals than zinc destroyed RNA binding, but the binding would be restored if supplemented with zinc. [13] Proteins lacking any of the RRMs were also shown to be less efficient in binding RNA.

Not all of the regions are the same across the different forms of CPEB. The amino terminus can differ substantially across the proteins. The prion-like isoform of CPEB found in Aplysia californica, Drosophila, mice, and humans is an example of such differentiation. [5] This isoform is prion-like due to the presence of polyglutamine- or polyalanine-rich domains at the N-terminus. [5]

Neurological disorders

A misstep in the process of translation with CPEB can lead to possible adverse affects on neurological development. Risk genes for autism spectrum disorder were found in brains where "...CPEB4 transcript isoform imbalance due to decreased inclusion of a neuronal-specific microexon together with a new molecular signature of global polyadenine tail shortening..." [14] In idiopathic autism spectrum disorder individuals, CPEB4 is greatly decreased and showed significant splicing alterations. An equivalent isoform imbalance in mice mimics changes of autism spectrum disorder genes, which causes similar neuroanatomical, electrophysiological, and behavioral phenotype expression.

Gene regulation of CPEB proteins is also proposed as a target for gene therapy.. [5] Fragile X syndrome and Huntington's disease are two such disorders and diseases where CPEB regulation has been used to attempt recovery of brain function. There is not a cure for either of these afflictions, but translation dysfunction of CPEB proteins can be a cause for either. [15] When modeling fragile X syndrome in mice, CPEB1 gene mutations reduced pathological processes associated with the disorder. [16] A decrease in CPEB1 restored the balance of mRNA translation, which can be achieved by manipulating levels of miRNAs.

For Huntington's disease, a study on a Drosophila cell culture showed that the Drosophila Orb2A protein was absorbed on the surface of Huntingtin gene (Htt) aggregates. [15] The aggregates lead to a protein synthesis imbalance, cell decay, and neuron death. The absorption of the protein caused a partial reduction of the lethality of the Htt aggregates. The aggregates did not decrease, but protein synthesis balance was restored in the cells. However, CPEB sequestration translation dysfunction is not a definite cause of Huntington's disease symptoms in humans. Other RNA binding proteins could be other possible targets for translation dysfunction in patients with this disease.

Role in cellular senescence

CPEB has been found to help regulate cellular senescence through modulating p53 mRNA polyadenylation-induced translation. [17] When human skin and lung cells were put under a knockdown of CPEB, they bypassed the M1 crisis stage of senescence. This bypass is required for cellular transformation. Reduced CPEB levels also affected the rate at which cell division occurred, slowing down the process until the cells ceased to divide. In mice, reduced CPEB levels caused cells to become immortal. [17] A senescence-like phenotype recurred when CPEB was introduced into early passage cells, but not late passage cells. Senescence is considered an irreversible process, but the CPEB-induced senescence-like phenotype can possibly refute that. CPEB is thus shown to regulate senescence, as well as mediate immortalization in cells.

Role in memory

Drosophila Orb2 binds to genes implicated in long-term memory. An isoform of CPEB found in the neurons of the sea slug Aplysia californica , as well as in Drosophila , mice, and humans, contains an N-terminal domain not found in other isoforms that shows high sequence similarity to prion proteins. Experiments with the Aplysia isoform expressed in yeast reveal that CPEB has a key property associated with prions: it can cause other proteins to assume alternate protein conformations that are heritable in successive generations of yeast cells. Furthermore, the functional RNA-binding form of the CPEB protein may be the prion-like state. [18] These observations have led to the suggestion that long-lasting bistable prionlike proteins play a role in the formation of long-term memory. [19] It has been suggested that "both memory storage and its underlying synaptic plasticity are mediated by the increase in. . .CPEB." [20]

Role in oogenesis and embryonic development

CPEBs are responsible for the polyadenine tail length in oocytes during oogenesis. In Xenopus and mice oocytes, CPEB has been noted to control oocyte growth. Regulation of follicle development has been noted specifically in mice. [21] CPEB regulates oocyte development and follicle development in the dictyate stage through phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. [22] During pachytene, CPEB is phosphorylated, which controls polyadenylation and translation of mRNAs. [1] An experiment was conducted to determine how CPEB affected development by inhibiting the protein in mice. It was found that CPEB regulates Gdf9, a growth factor necessary for follicle development. Without CPEB, Gdf9 had a shortened polyadenine tail and reduced expression. It was also found that progressive oocyte loss and infertility arose from the knockdown of CPEB in oocytes, which resembles premature ovarian failure syndrome in humans. [22]

Interactions

CPEB has been shown to interact with the following proteins:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gene expression</span> Conversion of a genes sequence into a mature gene product or products

Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product that enables it to produce end products, proteins or non-coding RNA, and ultimately affect a phenotype. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein-coding genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) and small nuclear RNA (snRNA), the product is a functional non-coding RNA. The process of gene expression is used by all known life—eukaryotes, prokaryotes, and utilized by viruses—to generate the macromolecular machinery for life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Three prime untranslated region</span> Sequence at the 3 end of messenger RNA that does not code for product

In molecular genetics, the three prime untranslated region (3′-UTR) is the section of messenger RNA (mRNA) that immediately follows the translation termination codon. The 3′-UTR often contains regulatory regions that post-transcriptionally influence gene expression.

Polyadenylation is the addition of a poly(A) tail to an RNA transcript, typically a messenger RNA (mRNA). The poly(A) tail consists of multiple adenosine monophosphates; in other words, it is a stretch of RNA that has only adenine bases. In eukaryotes, polyadenylation is part of the process that produces mature mRNA for translation. In many bacteria, the poly(A) tail promotes degradation of the mRNA. It, therefore, forms part of the larger process of gene expression.

The 5′ untranslated region is the region of a messenger RNA (mRNA) that is directly upstream from the initiation codon. This region is important for the regulation of translation of a transcript by differing mechanisms in viruses, prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While called untranslated, the 5′ UTR or a portion of it is sometimes translated into a protein product. This product can then regulate the translation of the main coding sequence of the mRNA. In many organisms, however, the 5′ UTR is completely untranslated, instead forming a complex secondary structure to regulate translation.

The dictyate or dictyotene is a prolonged resting phase in oogenesis. It occurs in the stage of meiotic prophase I in ootidogenesis. It starts late in fetal life and is terminated shortly before ovulation by the LH surge. Thus, although the majority of oocytes are produced in female fetuses before birth, these pre-eggs remain arrested in the dictyate stage until puberty commences and the cells complete ootidogenesis.

RNA-binding proteins are proteins that bind to the double or single stranded RNA in cells and participate in forming ribonucleoprotein complexes. RBPs contain various structural motifs, such as RNA recognition motif (RRM), dsRNA binding domain, zinc finger and others. They are cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins. However, since most mature RNA is exported from the nucleus relatively quickly, most RBPs in the nucleus exist as complexes of protein and pre-mRNA called heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles (hnRNPs). RBPs have crucial roles in various cellular processes such as: cellular function, transport and localization. They especially play a major role in post-transcriptional control of RNAs, such as: splicing, polyadenylation, mRNA stabilization, mRNA localization and translation. Eukaryotic cells express diverse RBPs with unique RNA-binding activity and protein–protein interaction. According to the Eukaryotic RBP Database (EuRBPDB), there are 2961 genes encoding RBPs in humans. During evolution, the diversity of RBPs greatly increased with the increase in the number of introns. Diversity enabled eukaryotic cells to utilize RNA exons in various arrangements, giving rise to a unique RNP (ribonucleoprotein) for each RNA. Although RBPs have a crucial role in post-transcriptional regulation in gene expression, relatively few RBPs have been studied systematically.It has now become clear that RNA–RBP interactions play important roles in many biological processes among organisms.

Eukaryotic translation is the biological process by which messenger RNA is translated into proteins in eukaryotes. It consists of four phases: initiation, elongation, termination, and recapping.

oskar is a gene required for the development of the Drosophila embryo. It defines the posterior pole during early embryogenesis. Its two isoforms, short and long, play different roles in Drosophila embryonic development. oskar was named after the main character from the Günter Grass novel The Tin Drum, who refuses to grow up.

The cytoplasmic polyadenylation element (CPE) is a sequence element found in the 3' untranslated region of messenger RNA. While several sequence elements are known to regulate cytoplasmic polyadenylation, CPE is the best characterized. The most common CPE sequence is UUUUAU, though there are other variations. Binding of CPE binding protein to this region promotes the extension of the existing polyadenine tail and, in general, activation of the mRNA for protein translation. This elongation occurs after the mRNA has been exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. A longer poly(A) tail attracts more cytoplasmic polyadenine binding proteins (PABPs) which interact with several other cytoplasmic proteins that encourage the mRNA and the ribosome to associate. The lengthening of the poly(A) tail thus has a role in increasing translational efficiency of the mRNA. The polyadenine tails are extended from approximately 40 bases to 150 bases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CUGBP1</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

CUG triplet repeat, RNA binding protein 1, also known as CUGBP1, is a protein which in humans is encoded by the CUGBP1 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CPSF2</span> Protein-coding gene in humans

Cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor subunit 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CPSF2 gene. This protein is a subunit of the cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor (CPSF) complex which plays a key role in pre-mRNA 3' end processing and polyadenylation. The CPSF2 protein connects the two subunits of the complex, mCF and mPSF. Its structure contributes both to the stability of the subunits interaction and to the flexibility of the complex necessary for function. This protein has been identified as an essential subunit of the complex as certain mutations in the region inhibit CPSF complex formation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PUM2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Pumilio homolog 2 is an RNA-binding protein that in humans is encoded by the PUM2 gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">SYMPK</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

Symplekin is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SYMPK gene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">CPEB1</span> Protein-coding gene in humans

Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element-binding protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the CPEB1 gene.

Post-transcriptional regulation is the control of gene expression at the RNA level. It occurs once the RNA polymerase has been attached to the gene's promoter and is synthesizing the nucleotide sequence. Therefore, as the name indicates, it occurs between the transcription phase and the translation phase of gene expression. These controls are critical for the regulation of many genes across human tissues. It also plays a big role in cell physiology, being implicated in pathologies such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.

Staufen is a protein product of a maternally expressed gene first identified in Drosophila melanogaster. The protein has been implicated in helping regulate genes important in determination of gradients that set up the anterior posterior axis such as bicoid and oskar. Staufen proteins, abbreviated Stau, are necessary for cell localization during the oogenesis and zygotic development. It is involved in targeting of the messenger RNA encoding these genes to the correct pole of the egg cell.

Vasa is an RNA binding protein with an ATP-dependent RNA helicase that is a member of the DEAD box family of proteins. The vasa gene is essential for germ cell development and was first identified in Drosophila melanogaster, but has since been found to be conserved in a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates including humans. The Vasa protein is found primarily in germ cells in embryos and adults, where it is involved in germ cell determination and function, as well as in multipotent stem cells, where its exact function is unknown.

TMEM143 is a protein that in humans is encoded by TMEM143 gene. TMEM143, a dual-pass protein, is predicted to reside in the mitochondria and high expression has been found in both human skeletal muscle and the heart. Interaction with other proteins indicate that TMEM143 could potentially play a role in tumor suppression/expression and cancer regulation.

<i>Homeotic protein bicoid</i> Protein-coding gene in the species Drosophila melanogaster

Homeotic protein bicoid is encoded by the bcd maternal effect gene in Drosophilia. Homeotic protein bicoid concentration gradient patterns the anterior-posterior (A-P) axis during Drosophila embryogenesis. Bicoid was the first protein demonstrated to act as a morphogen. Although bicoid is important for the development of Drosophila and other higher dipterans, it is absent from most other insects, where its role is accomplished by other genes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">GLD-2</span> Protein-coding gene in the species Homo sapiens

GLD-2 is a cytoplasmic poly(A) polymerase (cytoPAPs) which adds successive AMP monomers to the 3’ end of specific RNAs, forming a poly(A) tail, which is a process known as polyadenylation.

References

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  2. 1 2 3 4 Hake LE, Richter JD (November 1994). "CPEB is a specificity factor that mediates cytoplasmic polyadenylation during Xenopus oocyte maturation". Cell. 79 (4): 617–627. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(94)90547-9. PMID   7954828. S2CID   42910508.
  3. ↑ de Moor CH, Richter JD (April 1999). "Cytoplasmic polyadenylation elements mediate masking and unmasking of cyclin B1 mRNA". The EMBO Journal. 18 (8): 2294–2303. doi:10.1093/emboj/18.8.2294. PMC   1171312 . PMID   10205182.
  4. ↑ Mendez R, Barnard D, Richter JD (April 2002). "Differential mRNA translation and meiotic progression require Cdc2-mediated CPEB destruction". The EMBO Journal. 21 (7): 1833–1844. doi:10.1093/emboj/21.7.1833. PMC   125948 . PMID   11927567.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Kozlov E, Shidlovskii YV, Gilmutdinov R, Schedl P, Zhukova M (March 2021). "The role of CPEB family proteins in the nervous system function in the norm and pathology". Cell & Bioscience. 11 (1): 64. doi: 10.1186/s13578-021-00577-6 . PMC   8011179 . PMID   33789753.
  6. ↑ Luitjens C, Gallegos M, Kraemer B, Kimble J, Wickens M (October 2000). "CPEB proteins control two key steps in spermatogenesis in C. elegans". Genes & Development. 14 (20): 2596–2609. doi:10.1101/gad.831700. PMC   316992 . PMID   11040214.
  7. ↑ Kang MK, Han SJ (March 2011). "Post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation during mouse oocyte maturation". BMB Reports. 3. 44 (3): 147–157. doi: 10.5483/BMBRep.2011.44.3.147 . PMID   21429291.
  8. ↑ Gilbert S (2010). Developmental Biology . Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p.  60. ISBN   978-0-87893-384-6.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Lin CL, Evans V, Shen S, Xing Y, Richter JD (February 2010). "The nuclear experience of CPEB: implications for RNA processing and translational control". RNA. 16 (2): 338–348. doi:10.1261/rna.1779810. PMC   2811663 . PMID   20040591.
  10. ↑ Kozak M (November 2008). "Faulty old ideas about translational regulation paved the way for current confusion about how microRNAs function". Gene. 2. 423 (2): 108–115. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2008.07.013. PMID   18692553.
  11. 1 2 Giangarrà V, Igea A, Castellazzi CL, Bava FA, Mendez R (2015-09-23). Jan E (ed.). "Global Analysis of CPEBs Reveals Sequential and Non-Redundant Functions in Mitotic Cell Cycle". PLOS ONE. 10 (9): e0138794. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1038794G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138794 . PMC   4580432 . PMID   26398195.
  12. 1 2 Duran-Arqué B, Cañete M, Castellazzi CL, Bartomeu A, Ferrer-Caelles A, Reina O, et al. (September 2022). "Comparative analyses of vertebrate CPEB proteins define two subfamilies with coordinated yet distinct functions in post-transcriptional gene regulation". Genome Biology. 23 (1): 192. doi: 10.1186/s13059-022-02759-y . PMC   9465852 . PMID   36096799.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Hake LE, Mendez R, Richter JD (February 1998). "Specificity of RNA binding by CPEB: requirement for RNA recognition motifs and a novel zinc finger". Molecular and Cellular Biology. 18 (2): 685–693. doi:10.1128/MCB.18.2.685. PMC   108779 . PMID   9447964.
  14. ↑ Parras A, Anta H, Santos-Galindo M, Swarup V, Elorza A, Nieto-González JL, et al. (August 2018). "Autism-like phenotype and risk gene mRNA deadenylation by CPEB4 mis-splicing". Nature. 560 (7719): 441–446. Bibcode:2018Natur.560..441P. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0423-5. PMC   6217926 . PMID   30111840.
  15. 1 2 Joag H, Ghatpande V, Desai M, Sarkar M, Raina A, Shinde M, et al. (September 2020). "A role of cellular translation regulation associated with toxic Huntingtin protein". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 77 (18): 3657–3670. doi:10.1007/s00018-019-03392-y. PMC   11105026 . PMID   31796991. S2CID   198249367.
  16. ↑ Udagawa T, Farny NG, Jakovcevski M, Kaphzan H, Alarcon JM, Anilkumar S, et al. (November 2013). "Genetic and acute CPEB1 depletion ameliorate fragile X pathophysiology". Nature Medicine. 19 (11): 1473–1477. doi:10.1038/nm.3353. PMC   3823751 . PMID   24141422.
  17. 1 2 Burns DM, Richter JD (December 2008). "CPEB regulation of human cellular senescence, energy metabolism, and p53 mRNA translation". Genes & Development. 22 (24): 3449–3460. doi:10.1101/gad.1697808. PMC   2607074 . PMID   19141477.
  18. ↑ Si K, Lindquist S, Kandel ER (December 2003). "A neuronal isoform of the aplysia CPEB has prion-like properties". Cell. 115 (7): 879–891. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(03)01020-1 . PMID   14697205.
  19. ↑ Shorter J, Lindquist S (June 2005). "Prions as adaptive conduits of memory and inheritance". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 6 (6): 435–450. doi:10.1038/nrg1616. PMID   15931169. S2CID   5575951.
  20. ↑ Fioriti L, Myers C, Huang YY, Li X, Stephan JS, Trifilieff P, Colnaghi L, Kosmidis S, Drisaldi B, Pavlopoulos E, Kandel ER (June 2015). "The Persistence of Hippocampal-Based Memory Requires Protein Synthesis Mediated by the Prion-like Protein CPEB3". Neuron. 86 (6): 1433–48. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.05.021 . PMID   26074003. S2CID   6196083.
  21. ↑ Conti M, Franciosi F (May 2018). "Acquisition of oocyte competence to develop as an embryo: integrated nuclear and cytoplasmic events". Human Reproduction Update. 24 (3): 245–266. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmx040. PMC   5907346 . PMID   29432538.
  22. 1 2 Racki WJ, Richter JD (November 2006). "CPEB controls oocyte growth and follicle development in the mouse". Development. 133 (22): 4527–4537. doi: 10.1242/dev.02651 . PMID   17050619. S2CID   14891558.
  23. 1 2 Campbell ZT, Menichelli E, Friend K, Wu J, Kimble J, Williamson JR, Wickens M (May 2012). "Identification of a conserved interface between PUF and CPEB proteins". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 287 (22): 18854–18862. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M112.352815 . PMC   3365739 . PMID   22496444.
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