California moray

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California moray
California moray.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Anguilliformes
Family: Muraenidae
Genus: Gymnothorax
Species:
G. mordax
Binomial name
Gymnothorax mordax
(Ayres, 1859)

The California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae, found in the eastern Pacific from just north of Santa Barbara to Santa Maria Bay in Baja California. [2] They are the only species of moray eel found off California, and one of the few examples of a subtropical moray. They typically occupy boulder or cobble habitats up to 40 m in depth. [3] They can attain lengths of about 5 ft (1.52 m) and are believed to live for upwards of 22–26 years. [4] Like other morays, they have no pelvic or pectoral fins or gill covers.

Contents

Habitat and distribution

California morays are a common sight on rocky reefs surrounding islands in southern California (notably, Catalina Island in the California Channel Islands) and other islands in the Pacific. [5] Their geographic distribution extends from Point Conception, California to Magdalena Bay, Baja California. [6] [7]

California moray juveniles can live in tide pools while adults live in deeper waters. [8] Adult California morays have high site fidelity, remaining in the same general location throughout their adult lives. [9]

Ecology

Symbiotic relationship

The California moray has a distinct mutualistic symbiotic relationship with red rock shrimp where the cleaner shrimp clean the moray. [10] The red rock shrimp aggregate in large populations on the moray. [11] In addition to cleaning, the cleaner shrimp help kills parasites within the mouth cavity and have been found to reach the stomach to feed on parasites. [12]

Diet

The California moray is thought to be primarily piscivorous, and appears to specialize in the kelp bass, Paralabrax clathratus. [13] However, they are opportunistic predators whose diet also consists of invertebrate prey such as octopuses, lobsters, other California morays, and red rock shrimp. [3] [14]

Feeding behavior

The California moray is the apex predator in the reef, its natural habitat, as they have few natural predators and face no intense competition for prey. They are thought to be nocturnal hunters due to their elusiveness in the daytime. [15]

Although many fishes have highly expandable skulls and can use suction feeding to capture prey, the fused skulls of morays prevents this. [8] Instead, California morays (like other moray eels) have a special set of pharyngeal jaws that allows prey to be transported from their mouths into their throats. These pharyngeal jaws look like miniature versions of the oral jaws and are more mobile than pharyngeal jaws in the other fishes. [16] As an additional aid to prey transport, they have a set of depressible teeth in the roof of their mouths that fold upward as prey is swallowed. [17] Despite the bite force of the California moray varying from 32N and 467N, morays do not exhibit a preference for certain food types based on their relative bite force. [18]

The California moray's prey manipulation behaviors, including consumption and transportation, also do not vary depending on prey type. However, the time spent on prey manipulation behaviors increases as prey size increases. [19] The California moray spends more time feeding as the size of the fish and cephalopods increases. However, when consuming a cephalopod, the California moray spends a greater proportion of time on transportation than feeding. Moreover, prey size increases with the size of the individual California moray. [20] When it comes time for the moray to feed on a cephalopod, like an octopus, the cephalopod will resist by latching on the head of the moray with its tentacles. To counter the cephalopod, the moray will twist and rotate its body so the tentacles can unhinge off the body so the moray can eat the cephalopod. [21] As a California moray grows, its prey becomes larger and it stops consuming smaller organisms.

Behavior

Reproduction

The California moray is believed to mate and spawn in the warm waters off the coast of Baja Mexico, with larvae being transported northward to California during winter or El Niño Southern Oscillation events. At least one study has proposed that this species is non-reproductive in the most northern parts of its range due to the water temperature being too cold for gonadal development. [22] A study used otoliths (ear bones) of California morays from Catalina Island to estimate individuals' ages, which cross-referenced with data from the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI) and revealed that the majority of individuals examined likely only arrived on Catalina Island due to an El Niño Southern Oscillation event. [23] During an ENSO event, larvae drifted north due to the northward-flowing Davidson Current. The fertilization of eggs occurs in the water, and although the pelagic larval duration (PLD) of larval G. mordax is unknown, studies on related species suggest that the larval state persists in the open ocean for several months before settling to reefs. [24]

Threats to humans

Human attacks due to the California moray are very rare but possible when venturing near them. California morays are not venomous, but they have the capability of causing deep puncture wounds with their bite. Injuries can become infected [25]

Conservation

The California moray is classified by the IUCN Red List as a species of least concern. [26] The California moray is not commercially fished, but the species does face threats from pollution and habitat degradation. [8]

However, despite their stability, California morays have still been the subject of conservation efforts. A recent study has connected the conservation efforts in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to ecological impacts on California moray populations. [14] Within MPAs, California morays were found to be longer, older, heavier, had higher body condition, and were found in greater abundance. However, too great of an abundance was also connected to higher frequencies of cannibalism, the presence of disease, and lower growth rates.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Moray eel</span> Family of fishes

Moray eels, or Muraenidae, are a family of eels whose members are found worldwide. There are approximately 200 species in 15 genera which are almost exclusively marine, but several species are regularly seen in brackish water, and a few are found in fresh water.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted moray</span> Species of moringa

The spotted moray is a medium to large moray eel. Other common names include conger, spotted eel, red moray, speckled moray, white cong, white jawed moray, white-chinned moray and white-jawed moray eel. Spotted eels have a long snake-like body, white or pale yellow in general with small overlapping reddish brown to dark-brown spots. They are commonly 60 cm (24 in) in length and can grow up to 2 m (6.6 ft), weighing 2.51 kg (5.5 lb). They inhabit the Western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina and Bermuda to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. They are also found around the Mid- and Eastern Atlantic islands as far south as St Helena. They are typically found anywhere from the surface to a depth of 200 m (660 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pelican eel</span> Species of fish

The pelican eel is a deep-sea eel. It is the only known member of the genus Eurypharynx and the family Eurypharyngidae. It belongs to the "saccopharyngiforms", members of which were historically placed in their own order, but are now considered true eels in the order Anguilliformes. The pelican eel has been described by many synonyms, yet nobody has been able to demonstrate that more than one species of pelican eel exists. It is also referred to as the gulper eel, pelican gulper, and umbrella-mouth gulper. The specific epithet pelecanoides refers to the pelican, as the fish's large mouth is reminiscent of that of the pelican.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laced moray</span> Species of fish

The laced moray, also known as the leopard moray, leopard moray eel, tessellate moray or honeycomb moray, is a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae.

<i>Gymnothorax</i> Genus of fishes

Gymnothorax is a genus of fish in the family Muraenidae found in Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Ocean. With more than 120 species, it the most speciose genus of moray eels.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kidako moray</span> Species of fish

The Kidako moray is a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae. It inhabits coral reefs or lagoons and could be found in tropical and subtropical seas near Taiwan, Japan, and Australia. The species is diurnal, which means it is more active in the daytime than the nighttime. It is also piscivorous: it consumes fish, octopus, and squid. Other than the Kidako moray, there are about 200 species of moray eels in the Muraenidae family. The Kidako moray would not attack humans unless they are provoked. However, due to the menacing looks of the Kidako moray and moray eels in general, they are feared by divers and snorkelers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yellow-edged moray</span> Species of fish

The yellow-edged moray, also known as yellow-margin(ed) moray, leopard moray, and speckled moray, is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae, found in the Indo-Pacific Oceans at depths to 150 m (500 ft).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Green moray</span> Species of eel

The green moray is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae, found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Long Island, New York, Bermuda, and the northern Gulf of Mexico to Brazil, at depths down to 40 metres (130 ft). Its length is up to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft). It is the largest moray species of the tropical Atlantic and one of the largest species of moray eel known. Though it is not considered endangered, the species is particularly under-studied and estimated to be undercounted by up to 400% in single-pass visual surveys.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snowflake moray</span> Species of fish

The snowflake moray, also known as the clouded moray among many vernacular names, is a species of marine eel of the family Muraenidae. It has blunt teeth ideal for its diet of crustaceans, a trait it shares with the zebra moray.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Undulated moray</span> Species of fish

The undulated moray is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae, found in the Indo-Pacific and east-central Pacific Ocean at depths down to 30 m. Their length is up to 1.5 m.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fimbriated moray</span> Species of fish

The fimbriated moray, also known as dark-spotted moray or spot-face moray, is a moray eel of the family Muraenidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Giant moray</span> Species of fish

The giant moray is a species of moray eel and a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae. In terms of body mass, it is the largest moray eel; however, the slender giant moray is the largest in terms of body length.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pharyngeal jaw</span> Mophological feature in some fish

Pharyngeal jaws are a "second set" of jaws contained within an animal's throat, or pharynx, distinct from the primary or oral jaws. They are believed to have originated as modified gill arches, in much the same way as oral jaws. Originally hypothesized to have evolved only once, current morphological and genetic analyses suggest at least two separate points of origin. Based on connections between musculoskeletal morphology and dentition, diet has been proposed as a main driver of the evolution of the pharyngeal jaw. A study conducted on cichlids showed that the pharyngeal jaws can undergo morphological changes in less than two years in response to their diet. Fish that ate hard-shelled prey had a robust jaw with molar-like teeth fit for crushing their durable prey. Fish that ate softer prey, on the other hand, exhibited a more slender jaw with thin, curved teeth used for tearing apart fleshy prey. These rapid changes are an example of phenotypic plasticity, wherein environmental factors affect genetic expression responsible for pharyngeal jaw development. Studies of the genetic pathways suggest that receptors in the jaw bone respond to the mechanical strain of biting hard-shelled prey, which prompts the formation of a more robust set of pharyngeal jaws.

<i>Gymnothorax miliaris</i> Species of fish

Gymnothorax miliaris, the goldentail moray, bastard eel, or conger moray, is a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae.

<i>Gymnothorax pictus</i> Species of fish

Gymnothorax pictus, the painted moray, paintspotted moray or peppered moray, is a moray eel. The Chamorro name of the eel is títugi.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Panamic green moray eel</span> Species of fish

The panamic green moray eel is a large moray eel in the Pacific. Common names also include chestnut moray eel.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whitemargin moray eel</span> Species of fish

The whitemargin moray or the white-edged moray, Gymnothorax albimarginatus, is a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackcheek moray eel</span> Species of fish

The blackcheek moray eel or masked moray is a species of marine fish in the family Muraenidae.

<i>Gymnothorax rueppelliae</i> Species of fish

Gymnothorax rueppelliae, the banded moray, banded reef-eel, Rüppell's moray, Rüppell's moray eel, black barred eel, yellow-headed moray eel or yellow-headed moray, is a moray eel found in tropical coral reefs. Gymnothorax rueppelliae is a pale grey to greyish-brown moray with 16-21 dark bars on the body, a bright yellow head and a dark spot at the corner of the mouth. They differ from the Gymnothorax pikei, a close relative that lives Papua New Guinea. They have fewer vomerine teeth. They also reach a maximum length of 80 cm.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian mud moray eel</span> Species of fish

The Indian mud moray eel, is a moray eel found in the western Pacific and Indian Oceans. It was first named by Hamilton in 1822, and is also commonly known as the freshwater moray or freshwater snowflake eel.

References

  1. ↑ Smith, D.G., McCosker, J. & Tighe, K. (2019). "Gymnothorax mordax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T195761A2414316. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T195761A2414316.en . Retrieved 10 November 2021.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is classified of least concern.
  2. ↑ Fitch, John E.; Lavenberg, Robert J. (1971). Marine Food and Game Fishes of California . University of California Press. ISBN   9780520018310.
  3. 1 2 Higgins, B. A.; Mehta, R. S. (2018-01-01). "Distribution and habitat associations of the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) within Two Harbors, Santa Catalina Island, California". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 101 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1007/s10641-017-0684-0. ISSN   0378-1909. S2CID   24614235.
  4. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Pearson, D.; Mehta, R. S. (2017-01-31). "El Niño episodes coincide with California moray Gymnothorax mordax settlement around Santa Catalina Island, California". Journal of Fish Biology. 90 (4): 1570–1583. doi:10.1111/jfb.13253. ISSN   0022-1112. PMID   28138961.
  5. ↑ Fitch, John E. (1971). Marine food and game fishes of California. Robert J. Lavenberg. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN   0-520-01831-1. OCLC   201913.
  6. ↑ Pacific, Aquarium of the. "California Moray". www.aquariumofpacific.org. Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  7. ↑ Dale, Katherine E; Ramírez-Valdez, Arturo; McCosker, John E; Love, Milton S (2021-04-01). "Revising geographic distributions of eastern Pacific moray eels". Bulletin of Marine Science. 97 (2): 305–326. doi:10.5343/bms.2020.0060. ISSN   0007-4977. S2CID   234242184.
  8. 1 2 3 "California moray (Gymnothorax mordax)". Monterey Bay Aquarium. Archived from the original on 2020-11-16.
  9. ↑ Mehta, R.S.; Dale, K.E.; Higgins, B.A. (12 June 2020). "Marine Protection Induces Morphological Variation in the California Moray, Gymnothorax mordax". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 60 (2): 522–534. doi: 10.1093/icb/icaa061 . PMID   32497193 . Retrieved 2022-12-20.
  10. ↑ McCosker, John E. (2006-02-15). "CHAPTER 21. Symbiotic Relationships". The Ecology of Marine Fishes. University of California Press. pp. 555–554. doi:10.1525/9780520932470-023. ISBN   978-0-520-93247-0. S2CID   226773280.
  11. ↑ Bauer, Raymond; Newman, William (2004-02-01). "Protandric Simultaneous Hermaphroditism in the Marine Shrimp Lysmata Californica (Caridea: Hippolytidae)". Journal of Crustacean Biology. 24: 131–139. doi: 10.1651/C-2426 . S2CID   86019624.
  12. ↑ Limbaugh, Conrad (1961). "Cleaning Symbiosis". Scientific American. 205 (2): 42–49. Bibcode:1961SciAm.205b..42L. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0861-42. ISSN   0036-8733. JSTOR   24937035.
  13. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin, A. (2018). "Functional Ecology and Metabolics of the California Moray ( Gymnothorax mordax)". ProQuest   2088507721 – via ProQuest.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. 1 2 Mehta, Rita S.; Dale, Katherine E.; Higgins, Benjamin A. (2020). "Marine Protection Induces Morphological Variation in the California Moray, Gymnothorax mordax". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 60 (2): 522–534. doi: 10.1093/icb/icaa061 . PMID   32497193 . Retrieved 2021-11-10.
  15. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Mehta, R. S. (2018-01-01). "Distribution and habitat associations of the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax) within Two Harbors, Santa Catalina Island, California". Environmental Biology of Fishes. 101 (1): 95–108. doi:10.1007/s10641-017-0684-0. ISSN   0378-1909. S2CID   24614235.
  16. ↑ Mehta, Rita S.; Wainwright, Peter C. (September 2007). "Raptorial jaws in the throat help moray eels swallow large prey". Nature. 449 (7158): 79–82. Bibcode:2007Natur.449...79M. doi:10.1038/nature06062. ISSN   0028-0836. PMID   17805293. S2CID   4384411.
  17. ↑ Harrison, Jacob S.; Higgins, Benjamin A.; Mehta, Rita S. (2017-06-01). "Scaling of dentition and prey size in the California moray (Gymnothorax mordax)". Zoology. 122: 16–26. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2017.02.002. ISSN   0944-2006. PMID   28236504.
  18. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin A.; Law, Chris J.; Mehta, Rita S. (2018-11-01). "Eat whole and less often: ontogenetic shift reveals size specialization on kelp bass by the California moray eel, Gymnothorax mordax". Oecologia. 188 (3): 875–887. Bibcode:2018Oecol.188..875H. doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4260-x. ISSN   1432-1939. PMC   6208710 . PMID   30229354.
  19. ↑ Diluzio, Amber R.; Baliga, Vikram B.; Higgins, Benjamin A.; Mehta, Rita S. (June 2017). "Effects of prey characteristics on the feeding behaviors of an apex marine predator, the California moray ( Gymnothorax mordax)". Zoology. 122: 80–89. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2017.03.002. ISSN   0944-2006. PMID   28372850.
  20. ↑ Higgins, Benjamin A.; Law, Chris J.; Mehta, Rita S. (November 2018). "Eat whole and less often: ontogenetic shift reveals size specialization on kelp bass by the California moray eel, Gymnothorax mordax". Oecologia. 188 (3): 875–887. Bibcode:2018Oecol.188..875H. doi:10.1007/s00442-018-4260-x. ISSN   0029-8549. PMC   6208710 . PMID   30229354.
  21. ↑ MacGinitie, G. E. (1938). "Notes on the Natural History of Some Marine Animals". The American Midland Naturalist. 19 (1): 207–219. doi:10.2307/2420431. ISSN   0003-0031. JSTOR   2420431.
  22. ↑ Kim., McCleneghan. The ecology and behavior of the California moray eel Gymnothorax mordax (Ayres, 1859) with descriptions of its larva and the leptocephali of some other East Pacific muraenidae. OCLC   50234201.
  23. ↑ Higgins, B. A.; Pearson, D.; Mehta, R. S. (2017-01-31). "El Niño episodes coincide with California moray Gymnothorax mordax settlement around Santa Catalina Island, California". Journal of Fish Biology. 90 (4): 1570–1583. doi:10.1111/jfb.13253. ISSN   0022-1112. PMID   28138961.
  24. ↑ Huang, Wen-Chien; Chang, Jui-Tsung; Liao, Chun; Tawa, Atsushi; Iizuka, Yoshiyuki; Liao, Te-Yu; Shiao, Jen-Chieh (2018-05-09). "Pelagic larval duration, growth rate, and population genetic structure of the tidepool snake moray Uropterygius micropterus around the southern Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan, and the central Philippines". PeerJ. 6: e4741. doi: 10.7717/peerj.4741 . ISSN   2167-8359. PMC   5949063 . PMID   29761056.
  25. ↑ Warrell, David A (2013). "Animals Hazardous to Humans". Hunter's Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Disease: 938–965. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4160-4390-4.00134-X. ISBN   9781416043904. PMC   7152310 .
  26. ↑ Academy), John McCosker (Cal; Smith (Smithsonian ), David; Tighe (Smithsonian), Kenneth (2011-08-18). "IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Gymnothorax mordax". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2019-1.rlts.t195761a2414316.en .
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