Chrysoperla plorabunda

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Chrysoperla plorabunda
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Neuroptera
Family: Chrysopidae
Genus: Chrysoperla
Species:
C. plorabunda
Binomial name
Chrysoperla plorabunda
(Fitch, 1855)
Chrysoperla plorabunda Chrysoperla P1550837a.jpg
Chrysoperla plorabunda

Chrysoperla plorabunda, also known as a green lacewing, is an insect belonging to the cryptic carnea complex of the genus. [1] Species in the complex are nearly identical in morphology, with differences in substrate-borne vibrational songs being the only identifying factor. [1] C. plorabunda has a widespread distribution across North America, ranging from coast to coast and from northern Canada down to Mexico. [2] Within that range, they are typically found in open habitats such as grasslands and cultivated fields, as well as on the edges of deciduous forests and within coniferous forests. [3] Adults feed predominately on nectar and honeydew, while larvae feed on other soft-bodied arthropods. [3]

Contents

Biology

Morphology

Adults of C. plorabunda range from 12-20mm in size, with a forewing length of 9-14mm. [4] While coloration is most often observed to be bright green in adults, there is a wide variety in overall body color that is possible. [5] Larva are brown following emergence from the egg, and gain their green coloration first as a pupa and into adulthood. [6]

Adults change coloration from green to brown shortly after the induction of diapause, synchronizing their color with that of the changing leaves of deciduous plants. [5] Brown diapause coloration can remain after diapause is terminated, with the shift back to green only occurring when average temperature increases. [5] The intensity of color change that occurs in either direction can vary depending on the life stage of the individual, as well as the speed of transition from long to short days. [7] Regardless of the current coloration, C. plorabunda have a yellow stripe down the center of their body and a dark brown stripe marking their head. [4]

Juvenile behavior

As larvae, C. plorabunda engage in tonic immobility, a behavior that is colloquially known as "death feigning." This is a maintained, motionless posture that involves both behavioral and psychological changes associated with death, and is undertaken when larvae are in close proximity to a predator. [8] This behavior is utilized alongside other defensive mechanisms, such as biting mandibles, paralytic and digestive venoms, and deterrent anal secretions, with larvae with fewer energy reserves being more likely to enter tonic immobility than to utilize other defenses. [8]

Another behavior unique to juveniles for C. plorabunda are obligatory migrations taken before copulation and oviposition can occur. [9] Following their final molt, the newly emerged adults take their first flight at the first sunset after emergence. For at least two nights following emergence, both males and females will migrate an average distance of 40 km per night. [9] After two nights, they will begin to respond to food stimuli, leading them to land and seek out reproductive opportunities in locations where food is abundant. [9] The purpose of this migration is not fully understood, as young adults migrate regardless of food and mate availability. It has been hypothesized that these migrations are an adaptation to mixed agricultural and urban environments, in which there is high probability of both local habitat deterioration and finding equally suitable habitats nearby. [9]

Mating and reproduction

Reproductive cycle

The reproductive cycle of C. plorabunda is regulated by photoperiodic stimuli, with the reproductive period occurring under constant long-day conditions (13–14 hours of daylight or more). [10] Throughout the reproductive period, females will lay several hundred small eggs, and larvae will emerge within 3–6 days. This larval stage typically lasts two to three weeks, with three instars taking place before the final cocoon and adult emergence, which occurs in 10–14 days. [11]

At the end of the reproductive season, adults enter reproductive diapause when short-day conditions (12-13 hours or less of daylight) occur. The intensity of diapause is determined by the shortest day length below the critical photoperiod, meaning that shorter daylight causes longer periods of diapause. [10] Within the species, the length of daylight that triggers diapause varies with geography. As such, populations in climates that are become cold earlier in the year will enter reproductive diapause earlier, while those in climates that remain warm for longer will continue reproducing for a longer period of time. [10] For all C. plorabunda, the induction of diapause is characterized by a color shift from green to brown. [5]

Oviposition

Within C. plorabunda, the patterns of egg-laying, sexual receptivity, and mating vary widely. [12] On average, females have an oviposition length of ~64 days and lay an average of 780 eggs over their entire lifetime. [12] The majority of these eggs are produced from the first copulation. At their peak productivity, females can oviposit ~40 eggs per day, and will become sexually receptive again once this productivity begins to decline. [12]

Mating system

Both male and female C. plorabunda exhibit a polygynandrous mating system, seeking out multiple reproductive opportunities from different mates at approximately ~24 hour intervals. [13] When copulation is initiated, it lasts for approximately 8–10 minutes in most cases of sexual reproduction. [12] Males of the species undergo irreversible sperm depletion, however, making it that only the first two females will derive high fertilization potential from a given male. [13] Despite males being unable to manufacture new sperm, they will mate with an average of 22-30 females during their lifetime. [12]

Females copulate with an average of four males across their lifetimes. [13] Female mate choice appears to play a role in determining which males are successful in their copulation attempts. Despite reproductive duets being completed successfully, females may suddenly reject males by lunging or biting. [14] The reason for why certain males are rejected, even after duet completion, remains unknown.

Sexual communication

Chyrsoperla plorabunda males and females initiate copulation through identical substrate-borne vibrational mating songs. [1] The songs consist of volleys produced by low-frequency abdominal vibrations with downward modulation, which are repeated with a regular period. [1] They are relatively simple, with these single-volley repeat units serving as the unit of exchange between individuals. [1]

While intersexual duets are monomorphic, intrasexual duets exhibit sexual dimorphism. Males engage with other males in fast duets that speed up and terminate suddenly. [15] Females do not have the ability to perform this more rapid signaling pattern. [15] These faster songs have been shown to ensure that sex recognition can take place quickly, as well as to serve as a determinant of mating success. Females will preferentially duet and mate with the winners of male-male duetting contests. [15]

In addition to their role in initiating copulation, Chrysoperla mating songs also act as a mechanism of prezygotic behavioral isolation. Differences in songs function as preventative barriers to reproduction between song morphs that overlap in geographic range. [16] Females do not respond to songs that are delivered at a rate that is too fast for them to duet, or that does not exactly match their own song structure. [16] Males also do not respond to differences in song structure, but will respond to increasing speed with an attempt to initiate a male-male duetting competition. [16] As such, male and females are equally likely to terminate a duet interaction if the signals do not match each other closely enough. [17] This effectively isolates C. plorabunda from any other song morphs, as closely related species occupy adjacent but significantly different acoustic spaces. [17]

The genetic basis of this song based speciation are two large genomic regions associated with mating song phenotype on chromosomes one and two. [18] Compared to other autosomes, these chromosomes have lower rates of recombination, thus functioning to keep together the loci that are important to song phenotype and preference. [18] It is likely that there are other loci of small effect related to volley period spread throughout the genome, mutations to which have resulted in the rapid speciation observed in the C. carnea complex. [18]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroptera</span> Order of insects

The insect order Neuroptera, or net-winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantisflies, antlions, and their relatives. The order consists of some 6,000 species. Neuroptera is grouped together with the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera (snakeflies) in the unranked taxon Neuropterida.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysopidae</span> Family of insects

Green lacewings are insects in the large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. There are about 85 genera and 1,300–2,000 species in this widespread group. Members of the genera Chrysopa and Chrysoperla are very common in North America and Europe; they are very similar and many of their species have been moved from one genus to the other time and again, and in the nonscientific literature assignment to Chrysopa and Chrysoperla can rarely be relied upon. Since they are the most familiar neuropterans to many people, they are often simply called "lacewings". Since most of the diversity of Neuroptera are properly referred to as some sort of "lacewing", common lacewings is preferable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hemerobiidae</span> Family of insects

Hemerobiidae is a family of Neuropteran insects commonly known as brown lacewings, comprising about 500 species in 28 genera. Most are yellow to dark brown, but some species are green. They are small; most have forewings 4–10 mm long. These insects differ from the somewhat similar Chrysopidae not only by the usual coloring but also by the wing venation: hemerobiids differ from chrysopids in having numerous long veins and forked costal cross veins. Some genera are widespread, but most are restricted to a single biogeographical realm. Some species have reduced wings to the degree that they are flightless. Imagines (adults) of subfamily Drepanepteryginae mimic dead leaves. Hemerobiid larvae are usually less hairy than chrysopid larvae.

<i>Hetaerina</i> Genus of damselflies

Hetaerina is a genus of damselflies in the family Calopterygidae. They are commonly known as rubyspots because of the deep red wing bases of the males. The name is from Ancient Greek: ἑταίρα (hetaira), courtesan. H. rudis, the Guatemalan rubyspot, is considered vulnerable on the IUCN Red Data List.

<i>Spodoptera littoralis</i> Species of moth

Spodoptera littoralis, also referred to as the African cotton leafworm or Egyptian cotton leafworm or Mediterranean brocade, is a species of moth in the family Noctuidae. S. littoralis is found widely in Africa, Mediterranean Europe and Middle Eastern countries. It is a highly polyphagous organism that is a pest of many cultivated plants and crops. As a result, this species was assigned the label of A2 quarantine pest by the EPPO and was cautioned as a highly invasive species in the United States. The devastating impacts caused by these pests have led to the development of both biological and chemical control methods. This moth is often confused with Spodoptera litura.

<i>Melanoplus bivittatus</i> Species of grasshopper

Melanoplus bivittatus, the two-striped grasshopper, is a poikilothermic species of grasshopper belonging to the genus Melanoplus. It is commonly found in North America, with high quantities inhabiting Canadian prairies and farmland.

<i>Chrysoperla</i> Genus of insects

Chrysoperla is a genus of common green lacewings in the neuropteran family Chrysopidae. Therein they belong to the Chrysopini, the largest tribe of subfamily Chrysopinae. Their larvae are predatory and feed on aphids, and members of this genus have been used in biological pest control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysopinae</span> Subfamily of lacewings

Chrysopinae is the nominate subfamily of green lacewings in the insect family Chrysopidae in the order Neuroptera. This subfamily is also the largest within the family and comprises about 60 genera.

<i>Chrysoperla carnea</i> Species of insect

Chrysoperla carnea, one of the species of common green lacewing, is an insect in the Chrysopidae family. Although the adults feed on nectar, pollen and aphid honeydew, the larvae are active predators and feed on aphids and other small insects. It has been used in the biological control of insect pests on crops.

<i>Chrysopa perla</i> Species of lacewing

Chrysopa perla, the Pearly Green Lacewing, is an insect species belonging to the green lacewing family, Chrysopidae.

<i>Chrysoperla lucasina</i> Species of insect

Chrysoperla lucasina is a species of neuropteran of the family Chrysopidae. They are found mainly in the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, in western Asia and northern Africa.

<i>Sepsis cynipsea</i> Species of fly

Sepsis cynipsea is a European species of fly and member of the family Sepsidae. It is a coprophagous fly that feeds on dung. These flies are most commonly found around freshly laid cattle dung where they eat and reproduce. Due to human agricultural practices involving cows, these flies are now common in other areas of the world.

Drosophila montana, colloquially referred to as a fruit fly, is a species of fly belonging to the family Drosophilidae and the genus Drosophila. It belongs to the montana phylad, which diverged from the D. virilis species group in South Asia before its migration into North America. It is typically found in the western United States, but has been seen in Europe and Asia. There are two color phases of the species, having either a yellowish or a blackish brown thorax. It is the species of Drosophila best adapted to cold environments.

<i>Climaciella brunnea</i> Species of insect

Climaciella brunnea, known sometimes by the common names wasp mantidfly, western mantidfly, and brown mantidfly, is a predatory neuropteran insect in the family Mantispidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysopini</span> Tribe of lacewings

Chrysopini is a tribe of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae. There are about 32 genera and 926 described species in Chrysopini.

<i>Abachrysa</i> Genus of lacewings

Abachrysa is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae. There is one described species in Abachrysa, Abachrysa eureka.

<i>Leucochrysa</i> Genus of lacewings

Leucochrysa is a genus of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae. As of 2013, there are 196 described species in Leucochrysa, found in the Americas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leucochrysini</span> Tribe of lacewings

Leucochrysini is a tribe of green lacewings in the family Chrysopidae. There are 7 genera and 213 described species in Leucochrysini.

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<i>Chrysoperla rufilabris</i> Species of lacewing

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References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Henry, Charles S.; Martínez Wells, Marta Lucía; Holsinger, Kent E. (2002). "The Inheritance of Mating Songs in Two Cryptic, Sibling Lacewing Species (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae: Chrysoperla)". Genetica. 116 (2/3): 269–289. doi:10.1023/A:1021240611362. PMID   12555784.
  2. ↑ Henry, Charles S.; Wells, Marta Martinez (1990-05-01). "Geographical Variation in the Song of Chrysoperla plorabunda (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) in North America". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 83 (3): 317–325. doi:10.1093/aesa/83.3.317. ISSN   1938-2901.
  3. 1 2 Henry, Charles S.; Wells, Marta MartíNez; Pupedis, Raymond J. (1993-01-01). "Hidden Taxonomic Diversity within Chrysoperla plorabunda (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae): Two New Species Based on Courtship Songs". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 86 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1093/aesa/86.1.1. ISSN   1938-2901.
  4. 1 2 Brooks, S. J. (1994). "A taxonomic review ot the common green lacewing genus Chrysoperla (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, Entomology Series. 63: 137–210.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Duelli, Peter; Johnson, James B; Waldburger, Mario; Henry, Charles S (2014-03-01). "A New Look at Adaptive Body Coloration and Color Change in "Common Green Lacewings" of the Genus Chrysoperla (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 107 (2): 382–388. doi:10.1603/an13139. ISSN   1938-2901.
  6. ↑ "Species catalog of the Neuroptera, Megaloptera, and Raphidioptera of America north of Mexico". Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 50 (3): 39–114. 1997.
  7. ↑ Tauber, Maurice J.; Tauber, Catherine A. (1970-11-01). "Adult diapause in Chrysopa carnea: Stages sensitive to photoperiodic induction". Journal of Insect Physiology. 16 (11): 2075–2080. Bibcode:1970JInsP..16.2075T. doi:10.1016/0022-1910(70)90080-6. ISSN   0022-1910.
  8. 1 2 Taylor, Katherine L; Henry, Charles S; Farkas, Timothy E (2023-07-01). "Why fake death? Environmental and genetic control of tonic immobility in larval lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Journal of Insect Science. 23 (4). doi:10.1093/jisesa/iead066. ISSN   1536-2442. PMC   10407979 . PMID   37551937.
  9. 1 2 3 4 Duelli, Peter (1980). "Preovipository Migration Flights in the Green Lacewing, Chrysopa carnea (Planipennia, Chrysopidae)". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 7 (3): 239–246. doi:10.1007/BF00299370. ISSN   0340-5443. JSTOR   4599333.
  10. 1 2 3 Tauber, Catherine A.; Tauber, Maurice J. (June 1987). "Inheritance of seasonal cycles in Chrysoperla (Insecta: Neuroptera)". Genetics Research. 49 (3): 215–223. doi: 10.1017/S0016672300027105 . ISSN   1469-5073.
  11. ↑ Amarasekare, Kaushalya G.; Shearer, Peter W. (2013-10-01). "Life History Comparison of Two Green Lacewing Species Chrysoperla johnsoni and Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". Environmental Entomology. 42 (5): 1079–1084. doi: 10.1603/EN13070 . ISSN   0046-225X. PMID   24331618.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Henry, Charles S.; Busher, Christine (1987). "Patterns of Mating and Fecundity in Several Common Green Lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) of Eastern North America". Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 94 (3–4): 219–244. doi: 10.1155/1987/79165 . ISSN   0033-2615.
  13. 1 2 3 Henry, Charles S. (1985). "The Proliferation of Cryptic Species in Chrysoperla Green Lacewings through Song Divergence". The Florida Entomologist. 68 (1): 18–38. doi:10.2307/3494328. ISSN   0015-4040. JSTOR   3494328.
  14. ↑ Henry, Charles S.; Wells, Marta L. Martinez (1990). "Sexual Singing Preceding Copulation in Chrysoperla plorabunda Green Lacewings: Observations in a Semi-Natural Environment (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)". The Florida Entomologist. 73 (2): 331–333. doi:10.2307/3494818. ISSN   0015-4040. JSTOR   3494818.
  15. 1 2 3 Henry, Charles S.; Wells, Marta Lucía Martínez (July 2009). "Sexually Dimorphic Intrasexual Duetting in an Otherwise Monomorphic Green Lacewing (Neuroptera, Chrysopidae, Chrysoperla plorabunda): Sexual Selection or Sex Recognition?". Journal of Insect Behavior. 22 (4): 289–312. Bibcode:2009JIBeh..22..289H. doi:10.1007/s10905-009-9174-3. ISSN   0892-7553.
  16. 1 2 3 Wells, Marta Martínez; Henry, Charles S. (1994-09-01). "Behavioral responses of hybrid lacewings (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) to courtship songs". Journal of Insect Behavior. 7 (5): 649–662. Bibcode:1994JIBeh...7..649W. doi:10.1007/BF01997437. ISSN   1572-8889.
  17. 1 2 Henry, Charles S.; Wells, Marta M. (December 2010). "Acoustic niche partitioning in two cryptic sibling species of Chrysoperla green lacewings that must duet before mating". Animal Behaviour. 80 (6): 991–1003. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.08.021.
  18. 1 2 3 Taylor, Katherine L.; Wade, Elizabeth J.; Wells, Marta M.; Henry, Charles S. (April 2023). "Genomic regions underlying the species-specific mating songs of green lacewings". Insect Molecular Biology. 32 (2): 79–85. doi:10.1111/imb.12815. hdl: 1903/30632 . ISSN   0962-1075. PMID   36281633.
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