Dinophysis acuta

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Dinophysis acuta
Dinophysis acuta.jpg
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Chromista
Superphylum: Alveolata
Phylum: Myzozoa
Superclass: Dinoflagellata
Class: Dinophyceae
Order: Dinophysiales
Family: Dinophysaceae
Genus: Dinophysis
Species:
D. acuta
Binomial name
Dinophysis acuta

Dinophysis acuta is a species of flagellated planktons belonging to the genus Dinophysis . It is one of the few unusual photosynthetic protists that acquire plastids from algae by endosymbiosis. By forming massive blooms, particularly in late summer and spring, it causes red tides. It produces toxic substances and the red tides cause widespread infection of seafood, particularly crabs and mussels. When infected animals are consumed, severe diarrhoea occurs. The clinical symptom is called diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. [1] The main chemical toxins were identified in 2006 as okadaic acid and pectenotoxins. [2] [3] [4] They can produce non-fatal or fatal amounts of toxins in their predators, which can become toxic to humans.

Contents

Description

Dinophysis acuta is a marine unicellular protist, and is the largest among Dinophysis. It is an armoured species with a distinct body covering called theca or test. The body is laterally compressed with a small, cap-like epitheca and a much larger hypotheca. It has the double collars (known as cingulum) around the top of the cell, and a further wing (known as the sulcus) running vertically down the cell. It is oblong in shape with almost entirely rounded posterior end, but the tip of the end is slightly pointed. The size ranges from 54 to 94 µm in length and 43 to 60 µm in dorso-ventral width, with the widest region below the middle. The small epitheca is composed of four plates. It is low, flat or weakly convex, and is invisible in lateral view, which is a good identifying feature. The sulcus consists of several irregularly-shaped plates, and it contains the flagellar pore. The hypotheca has four large plates that constitute the majority of the cell. The anterior two-thirds of the hypotheca has convex margins, while the posterior third forms a broad asymmetrical triangle with a straight dorsal edge, and occasionally a slightly concave ventral edge. Reproduction is by simple binary fission. The most unusual cellular structure is the presence of numerous reddish-yellow chloroplasts, which are derived from its prey, which in turn had acquired from algae. [5] [6] [7]

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning

The first cases of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) due to D. acuta were recorded in 1972 in Peru, but were reported to the scientific community only in 1991. [8] It is a mildest form of seafood poisoning, indicated by severe diarrhoea. [1] The first toxins isolated from the species were pectenotoxins (PTX-2 and PTX-11) in 2003 from specimens collected from the west coast of South Island, New Zealand, [9] and PTX-12 independently at Skjer, Sognefjorden in Norway. [10] In 2004, the presence of okadaic acid esters was reported. [11] Further identification and the importance of these compounds as causal factors of DSP were discovered in 2006. [2] [3] [4]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxin</span> Naturally occurring organic poison

A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919) and is derived from the word toxic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Saxitoxin</span> Paralytic shellfish toxin

Saxitoxin (STX) is a potent neurotoxin and the best-known paralytic shellfish toxin (PST). Ingestion of saxitoxin by humans, usually by consumption of shellfish contaminated by toxic algal blooms, is responsible for the illness known as paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palytoxin</span> Chemical compound

Palytoxin, PTX or PLTX is an intense vasoconstrictor, and is considered to be one of the most poisonous non-protein substances known, second only to maitotoxin in terms of toxicity in mice.

Okadaic acid, C44H68O13, is a toxin produced by several species of dinoflagellates, and is known to accumulate in both marine sponges and shellfish. One of the primary causes of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of specific protein phosphatases and is known to have a variety of negative effects on cells. A polyketide, polyether derivative of a C38 fatty acid, okadaic acid and other members of its family have shined light upon many biological processes both with respect to dinoflagellete polyketide synthesis as well as the role of protein phosphatases in cell growth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paralytic shellfish poisoning</span> Syndrome of shellfish poisoning

Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is one of the four recognized syndromes of shellfish poisoning, which share some common features and are primarily associated with bivalve mollusks. These shellfish are filter feeders and accumulate neurotoxins, chiefly saxitoxin, produced by microscopic algae, such as dinoflagellates, diatoms, and cyanobacteria. Dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are the most numerous and widespread saxitoxin producers and are responsible for PSP blooms in subarctic, temperate, and tropical locations. The majority of toxic blooms have been caused by the morphospecies Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium tamarense, Gonyaulax catenella and Alexandrium fundyense, which together comprise the A. tamarense species complex. In Asia, PSP is mostly associated with the occurrence of the species Pyrodinium bahamense.

Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) is an illness caused by consumption of shellfish that contain the marine biotoxin called domoic acid. In mammals, including humans, domoic acid acts as a neurotoxin, causing permanent short-term memory loss, brain damage, and death in severe cases.

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is one of the four recognized symptom types of shellfish poisoning, the others being paralytic shellfish poisoning, neurotoxic shellfish poisoning and amnesic shellfish poisoning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cylindrospermopsin</span> Chemical compound

Cylindrospermopsin is a cyanotoxin produced by a variety of freshwater cyanobacteria. CYN is a polycyclic uracil derivative containing guanidino and sulfate groups. It is also zwitterionic, making it highly water soluble. CYN is toxic to liver and kidney tissue and is thought to inhibit protein synthesis and to covalently modify DNA and/or RNA. It is not known whether cylindrospermopsin is a carcinogen, but it appears to have no tumour initiating activity in mice.

<i>Dinophysis</i> Genus of single-celled organisms

Dinophysis is a genus of dinoflagellates common in tropical, temperate, coastal and oceanic waters. It was first described in 1839 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Yessotoxin</span> Chemical compound

Yessotoxins are a group of lipophilic, sulfur bearing polyether toxins that are related to ciguatoxins. They are produced by a variety of dinoflagellates, most notably Lingulodinium polyedrum and Gonyaulax spinifera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phenolic acid</span>

Phenolic acids or phenolcarboxylic acids are types of aromatic acid compounds. Included in that class are substances containing a phenolic ring and an organic carboxylic acid function. Two important naturally occurring types of phenolic acids are hydroxybenzoic acids and hydroxycinnamic acids, which are derived from non-phenolic molecules of benzoic and cinnamic acid, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Azaspiracid</span> Chemical compound

Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of polycyclic ether marine algal toxins produced by the small dinoflagellate Azadinium spinosum that can accumulate in shellfish and thereby cause illness in humans.

Coolia tropicalis is a species of dinoflagellates, first found in Belize.

Canadian Reference Materials (CRM) are certified reference materials of high-quality and reliability produced by the National Metrology Institute of Canada – the National Research Council Canada. The NRC Certified Reference Materials program is operated by the Measurement Science and Standards portfolio and provides CRMs for environmental, biotoxin, food, nutritional supplement, and stable isotope analysis. The program was established in 1976 to produce CRMs for inorganic and organic marine environmental analysis and remains internationally recognized producer of CRMs.

<i>Dinophysis acuminata</i> Species of dinoflagellate

Dinophysis acuminata is a marine plankton species of dinoflagellates that is found in coastal waters of the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The genus Dinophysis includes both phototrophic and heterotrophic species. D. acuminata is one of several phototrophic species of Dinophysis classed as toxic, as they produce okadaic acid which can cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP). Okadiac acid is taken up by shellfish and has been found in the soft tissue of mussels and the liver of flounder species. When contaminated animals are consumed, they cause severe diarrhoea. D. acuminata blooms are constant threat to and indication of diarrhoeatic shellfish poisoning outbreaks.

Karenia selliformis is a species from the genus Karenia, which are dinoflagellates. It was first discovered in New Zealand. Karenia selliformis produces the highly toxic gymnodimine, and as such is a potentially harmful ocean dweller. Gymnodimine is a nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-blocking phycotoxin, a source of shellfish poisoning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gonyautoxin</span> Chemical compound

Gonyautoxins (GTX) are a few similar toxic molecules that are naturally produced by algae. They are part of the group of saxitoxins, a large group of neurotoxins along with a molecule that is also referred to as saxitoxin (STX), neosaxitoxin (NSTX) and decarbamoylsaxitoxin (dcSTX). Currently eight molecules are assigned to the group of gonyautoxins, known as gonyautoxin 1 (GTX-1) to gonyautoxin 8 (GTX-8). Ingestion of gonyautoxins through consumption of mollusks contaminated by toxic algae can cause a human illness called paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pinnatoxin</span>

Pinnatoxins are paralytic chemical compounds that inhibit neuronal and muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Although first discovered in shellfish, they are produced by the peridinoid dinoflagellate Vulcanodinium rugosum. Eight subtypes, designated pinnatoxin A-H, have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Decarbamoylsaxitoxin</span> Chemical compound

Decarbamoylsaxitoxin, abbreviated as dcSTX, is a neurotoxin which is naturally produced in dinoflagellate. DcSTX is one of the many analogues of saxitoxin (STX).

Coolia is a marine dinoflagellate genus in the family Ostreopsidaceae. It was first described by Meunier in 1919. There are currently seven identified species distributed globally in tropical and temperate coastal waters. Coolia is a benthic or epiphytic type dinoflagellate: it can be found adhered to sediment or other organisms but it is not limited to these substrates. It can also be found in a freely motile form in the water column. The life cycle of Coolia involves an asexual stage where the cell divides by binary fission and a sexual stage where cysts are produced. Some of the species, for example, Coolia tropicalis and Coolia malayensis, produce toxins that can potentially cause shellfish poisoning in humans.

References

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