Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great

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Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great
German: Reiterstandbild Friedrichs des Großen
Berlin UdL monument asv2018-05.jpg
ArtistChristian Daniel Rauch
Year1851
MediumBronze
Dimensions13.50 m(44.3 ft)
LocationUnter den Linden, Berlin, Germany

The Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great on Unter den Linden avenue in Berlin's Mitte district commemorates King Frederick II. of Prussia. Created from 1839 to 1851 by Christian Daniel Rauch, it is a masterpiece of the Berlin school of sculpture, marking the transition from neoclassicism to realism. The bronze statue shows "The Old Fritz" dressed in military uniform, ermine coat and tricorne hat on horseback above the leading generals, statesmen, artists and scientist of his time. Walled in during World War II, it was disassembled by East Germany in 1950, reassembled in Sanssouci Park in 1963, and returned to its original location in 1980.

Contents

History

Prussian King Frederick William III commissioned the monument from sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch in 1839. It was cast beginning in 1845 by Karl Ludwig Friebel, whom Rauch brought from Lauchhammer for the purpose; changes to the figures on the base extended work to six years, [1] and the monument was unveiled on 31 May 1851. [2] It is one of Rauch's best known works, and influenced other monuments erected in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [3]

The equestrian statue influenced many other monuments and is a registered monument of the City of Berlin. Beneath the equestrian statue itself, the unusually large plinth includes reliefs of the four cardinal virtues and important scenes from Frederick's life, and depictions, many in full relief, of 74 notable men from his reign; bronze plaques beneath the bands of sculpture list military men, philosophers, mathematicians, poets, statesmen, engineers, and others important in Prussia's emergence as a great power in the mid-18th century.

During World War II, the monument was encased in concrete for protection. In May 1950, the East German Magistrat decided to remove it to the park at the palace of Sanssouci in Potsdam. Metal thieves damaged it after the protective casing was removed, and it was dismantled and taken away between 13 and 19 July. [4] After being stored in pieces and at one point almost melted down, [5] by 1962 the monument had been re-erected in the hippodrome at Charlottenhof Palace.

In the 1980s, the East German government changed its politics of memory and especially its position on the Prussian heritage. In 1980 Erich Honecker called Frederick "the Great" in an interview with Robert Maxwell; in the same year, the historian Ingrid Mittenzwei  [ de ] published a relatively positive biography of the king. [6] The statue was restored and returned to Unter den Linden, [7] approximately 6 metres (20 ft) east of its old position. [5] West Germany saw a similar return of a more positive view on Prussia with the Berlin exhibition Preußen – Versuch einer Bilanz (Prussia, an attempt at a complete picture). [8] The preparations to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of Berlin in 1987 led to further reconsideration of the Prussian heritage; that year Gisela May performed a song celebrating the statue's return. [9]

After German reunification, the Senate of Berlin had the monument scientifically restored, [10] and it was replaced in its original position, with the wrought-iron fence and 19th-century lamp posts recreated. After having paint thrown at it during a protest against the Bundeswehr, it was restored once more in 2006 and given a coating of wax to protect against graffiti. [11]

Description and location

Equestrian statue of Frederick II. Berlin, Mitte, Unter den Linden, Reiterstandbild Friedrich II.jpg
Equestrian statue of Frederick II.

The monument is 13.5 metres (44 ft) tall, with the equestrian statue itself standing 5.66 metres (18.6 ft) high. It depicts Frederick in military uniform and an ermine-trimmed cloak, wearing his decorations, and with his characteristic bicorne hat; he holds the reins in his left hand and in his right has a walking stick. The statue is mounted on an unusually tall plinth, 7.84 metres (25.7 ft) high, bearing two bands of additional sculpture above a band of inscriptions: the upper section shows scenes from the king's life, with the four cardinal virtues at the corners, while the middle depicts 74 great men of Frederick the Great's time in life size, many in full relief. [3]

The statue stands at the east end of Unter den Linden, facing east at the west end of the former Forum Fridericianum (now Bebelplatz) towards the site of the royal palace. [12] It is enclosed by a low wrought-iron fence, which was recreated when the monument was restored and replaced in its original position. [3]

Upper band

The upper sculpted band, immediately below the statue of the king, shows in bas-relief scenes from his life and is garnished at the corners with emblems of the four cardinal virtues in full relief. [13]

Middle band

The middle band depicts 74 men of Frederick the Great's time in life-size; some, such as the figure of his brother August, are free-standing; others are depicted in high relief. A few, including James Keith, are in bas-relief. As with the upper band, four figures in full relief stand at the corners, this time on horseback: Frederick's brother, Prince Henry of Prussia; Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz; and Hans Joachim von Zieten. [3]

Between the mounted figures stand 25 of the key men of Frederick's career. Some of them are full-sized free-standing figures and several are carved in partial relief. [13] The figures represented are predominantly military, but also include civilians of note, including diplomats, the Prime Minister of Prussia, jurists, poets, artists, and philosophers. [3]

   indicates that the figure is in bas-relief.

Lieutenant General Johann Dietrich von Hülsen, 1693–1767. Infantry. A man of legendary profanity,
Governor of Berlin, and commander of armies at Lobositz and Torgau. Fought in five Prussian wars. [18] 		Lieutenant General Karl Wilhelm von Dieskau, 1701–1777. Artillery. General Inspector of Artillery. Designed new field guns, and organised the training of the horse artillery. [19]
Lieutenant General Heinrich Sigismund von der Heyde, 1703–1765. Grenadier Battalion #4.
Maintained the heroic defence at the three Sieges of Kolberg. [20] 		Lieutenant General Frederick II Eugene, Duke of Württemberg, 1732–1797. [21]
Major General Hans Sigismund von Lestwitz, 1718–1788. His timely attack at the Battle of Torgau secured the victory and saved the army. [22] Lieutenant General Wilhelm Sebastian von Belling , 1719–1779. [23]
General of Cavalry Joachim Bernhard von Prittwitz-Graffron, 1726–1793. Cavalry. Led the Regiment Gendarmes. Saved the king's life at the Battle of Kunersdorf. [24] General of Infantry Prince Augustus William of Prussia , 1722–1758, father of Frederick William II. [25]
  † Field Marshal James Keith , 1693–1757. Infantry. Close friend and confidante of the king. Killed at the Battle of Hochkirch. [26] General of Cavalry Dubislav Friedrich von Platen, 1714–1787. Cavalry. Watched his two sons die at the Battle of Zorndorf. Successfully invaded Bamberg, taking many captives and gold. [27]
Field Marshal Leopold II, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau 1700–1751. The "Young Dessauer". [28]   † Major General Frederick Francis of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1732–1758. Brother of the Queen, killed at the Battle of Hochkirch. [29]
Field Marshal Friedrich Leopold, Graf von Gessler , 1688–1762. Cavalry. During attack of the Bayreuth Dragoons at the Battle of Hohenfriedburg, his regiment captured 62 enemy flags. [30]  ( DOW ) Lieutenant General Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, 1707–1757, Frederick's trusted advisor, founder of Prussian military intelligence unit, diplomat. [31]
Lieutenant General Carl Heinrich von Wedel, 1712–1782. Infantry. His regiment was so successful at the Battle of Leuthen that 14 members received the Pour le Mérite. [32] Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, 1729–1781, Philosopher. [33]
Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia, 1780–1813, brother of the king. [34] Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein, 1714–1800, Diplomat, Prime Minister of Prussia. [35]
Field Marshal Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau , 1676–1747, the "Old Dessauer". Talented drill master who modernised Prussian infantry. [36] Ernst Wilhelm von Schlabrendorf, 1719–1769, Prussian state minister in Silesia and Pomerania. [37]
  † Field Marshal Kurt Christoph, Graf von Schwerin , 1684–1757. Infantry. A member of the military court that tried Frederick for desertion in 1730. Killed at the Battle of Prague. [38] Johann Heinrich von Carmer, 1720–1801. Chancellor and First Minister of Justice for Frederick and his nephew. Prussian jurist and judicial reformer. [39]
Major General Frederick William von Kleist, 1724–1767. Cavalry. Commander of the Green Hussars. Commanded an independent corps that participated in the "Glorious Raid of 1762". [40] Carl Heinrich Graun, 1704–1759. Prussian tenor and composer. [41]
Lieutenant General Karl Christoph von der Goltz, 1707–1761. Infantry. Charged with defence of Glogau. [42] Immanuel Kant, 1724–1804. Philosopher. [43] [44]
  † Hartwig Karl von Wartenberg 1711–1757. Hussar. Major General. Killed in action at Alt-Bunzlau. [45]


Lower band

The lowest band lists names of additional key figures from Frederick's reign, pressed in bronze. [3]

South face

The south face displays bronze plaques with the names of 25 generals. [3]

General of Artillery Christian Nicolaus von Linger, 1669–1755. Artillery. Son of a master
armorer. Founded Prussian Artillery. [46] 		Field Marshal Hans von Lehwaldt, 1685–1768. Grenadier Guards. Reliable favourite of Frederick; he mentored Frederick's up-and-coming officers. [47]
Major General Prince Augustus Ferdinand of Prussia, 1730–1813. Infantry. Brother of Frederick. Grandson of George I of Great Britain. [34] Lieutenant General Friedrich Rudolf von Rothenburg, 1710–1751. Dragoons. Friend of the king, member of the Round Table of Frederick's closest friends. [48]
Lieutenant General Nikolaus Andreas von Katzler, 1696–1760. Gens d'armes. Entrepid soldier. [49] Field Marshal Wilhelm Dietrich von Buddenbrock, 1672–1757. Cavalry. Companion of Frederick's father. [50]
  † Lieutenant General Friedrich Sebastian Wunibald Truchsess zu Waldburg, 1677–1745. Known as "Trux". Infantry. Diplomat. Trusted confidant of the king. Died at the Battle of Hohenfriedburg. [51] Field Marshal Prince Moritz of Anhalt-Dessau, 1712–1760, Infantry. Sixth son of the "Old Dessauer". Promoted on the field after the Battle of Leuthen. [52]
 ( DOW ) Lieutenant General Heinrich Karl Ludwig de Herault, 1689–1757. Infantry. Died of injuries received at the Battle of Prague. Descended from Huguenot refugees. [53] Lieutenant General Christoph II von Dohna, 1702–1762. Infantry. Commanded various infantry regiments: Nr. 4; Nr. 23; Nr.16. [54]
Field Marshal Christoph Wilhelm von Kalckstein, 1682–1759. Infantry. Frederick's tutor; also supervisor of the Charité hospital in Berlin. [55] Lieutenant General Ernst Christoph von Nassau, 1686–1755. Cuirassier. Saved the king and his army when they were trapped at Königgrätz in 1745. [56]
Lieutenant General Charles Frederick Albert, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt, 1705–1752. Infantry. Frederick's cousin, Grand Master of the Order of St. John in Brandenburg. [57] Lieutenant General and General of Infantry Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué, 1698–1774. Füsiliers. Friend of Frederick's, one of the few permitted to visit him during his incarceration at Küstrin. Grand Master of the "Order of Bayard", a group of Frederick's friends. Descended from Huguenot refugees. [58]
Major General Christoph Ludwig von Stille, 1686–1752. Infantry. Educated man who spoke several languages and introduced Frederick to poets and philosophers. [59] Field Marshal Joachim Christoph von Jeetze, 1672–1753. Infantry. Instrumental in the victory at Kesseldorf in 1745. Suffered a fatal stroke while visiting Frederick in Potsdam. [60]
General of Infantry Peter Ludwig du Moulin, 1681–1756. Infantry. Quartermaster of Field Armies. Descended from Huguenot refugees. [61] Lieutenant General Augustus William, Duke of Brunswick-Bevern, 1715–1781. Infantry. Conducted the defensive campaign of 1757–1758 with great skill. [62]
Lieutenant General Georg Ludwig von Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorf, 1719–1763. Infantry. Dismissed in 1761, he served briefly in the Russian Army and retired to Holstein to start a faience factory. [63]   † Lieutenant General Kaspar Ernst von Schultze, 1691–1757. Life Guards. Initially in artillery; joined Frederick's own Life Guard regiment in 1732. Killed at the Battle of Breslau. [64]
Field Marshal Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau, 1702–1769. Infantry. Third son of the "Old Dessauer". [65]   † Lieutenant General Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt, 1714–1744. Foot Guards. Cousin of the king. Died at the Siege of Prague after being struck by a cannonball. [66]
Lieutenant General Friedrich Wilhelm Quirin von Forcade de Biaix, 1698–1765. Infantry. Succeeded his father as leader of the 23rd Infantry Regiment. Twice wounded and left for dead on the battlefield. Descended from Huguenot refugees [67] Lieutenant General Kaspar Ludwig von Bredow, 1685–1773. Foot Guards. Frederick's military mentor. Accompanied Frederick on his early campaigns in the Rhineland; served as intermediary between Frederick and his estranged father. [68]
Lieutenant General Franz Karl Ludwig von Wied zu Neuwied, 1710–1765. Infantry. Led the 41st Infantry Regiment. Reliable field commander. Retired with broken health. [69]

North face

The north face contains the names of 32 key military figures in Frederick's life. Thirty-two are generals; three are men who contributed significantly to various battles but because of early deaths did not reach the highest military rank. [3]

Lieutenant General August Friedrich von Itzenplitz, 1693–1759. Infantry. In 1759 led a raid against Bamberg and eluded the Imperial army. [70] Lieutenant General Georg Wilhelm von Driesen, 1700–1758. Curaissers. Instrumental in the Battles of Prague and Leuthen. [71]
Lieutenant General Wolf Frederick von Retzow, 1699–1758. Grenadiers. Started a weaver's colony near Potsdam at Frederick's orders. Refused a suicide mission preliminary to the Battle of Hochkirch and was removed from command. [72] Lieutenant General Otto Magnus von Schwerin, 1701–1777. Dragoons. Led the Bayreuth Dragoons at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg. His opinions often placed him in conflict with the king, so he was never raised to comital status [73]
 ( DOW ) Lieutenant General Arnold Christoph von Waldow, 1672–1734. Cavalry. Commanded left wing at the Battle of Chotusitz [74] Major General Gustav Bogislav von Münchow, 1686–1766. Frederick's valet de chambre when he was still Crown Prince. Envoy to Vienna in 1740. [75]
Major General Johann Carl Friedrich zu Carolath-Beuthen, 1716–1791. Cuirassier. Started in Austrian service, transferred to Prussian service in 1741. Served as a diplomat in Poland. [76] Lieutenant General Kasimir Wedig von Bonin, 1691–1752. Cavalry. Instrumental in the victory at Hohenfriedburg. [77]
Lieutenant General Joachim Christian von Tresckow, 1698–1762. Infantry. Defended the city of Neisse after the Prussian loss at Hochkirch, waiting for relief from the main army. [78]  ( DOW ) Lieutenant General Peter von Pennavaire, 1690–1759. Cavalry. Led Cuirassier Regiment No. 11. Nicknamed "the Anvil" because he was beaten so often. Descended from Huguenot refugees. [79]
Lieutenant General Christoph Friedrich von Lattorf, 1696–1762. Infantry. Resisted the Austrian siege at Kosel until relieved by General von der Golz. [80] Lieutenant General Heinrich von Manteuffel, 1696–1778. Infantry. At the Battle of Prague in 1757, picked up his fallen regimental colours and led a successful assault on the Austrian lines. [81]
Lieutenant General Anton von Krockow, 1714–1778. Infantry, Dragoons. Adjutant to Frederick. [82] Major General Dubislav Friedrich von Platen, 1714–1787. Cavalry. Saw two of his sons die at the Battle of Zorndorf; participated in the 1759 raid on Bamberg with von Kleist. [83]
Major General Carl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Braunschweig, 1735–1806. Military theoretician. [15] Major General Wilhelm Graf v. d. Lippe-Bückeburg 1724–1788. Military theoretician. [84]
Lieutenant General Friedrich Wilhelm von Gaudi, 1725–1788. Frederick's aide-de-camp. Identified French movement at the Battle of Rossbach that allowed Frederick to outflank them. Inspector of the Regiments in Westphalia. Descended from Scottish refugees. [85] Lieutenant General Carl Heinrich von Wedel, 1712–1782. Infantry. Successful regimental action during the Battle of Leuthen resulted in award of 14 Pour le Mérites. Badly wounded at Kunersdorf and retired. [86]
  † Lieutenant General Moritz Franz Kasimir von Wobersnow, 1708–1759. Killed at the Battle of Kay. [87]   † Major General Georg Ludwig von Puttkamer, 1715–1759. Hussars. Killed at the Battle of Kunersdorf. [88]
Colonel William Dietrich von Wakenitz, 1728–1805. Cuirassier. Led the Cuirassier Regiment No. 5. Considered by some of his contemporaries to be among the best commanders in the army, but his enemies blocked promotions. Transferred to Hessian service. [89]   † Major Siegmund Moritz William von Langen, 1704–1758. Hero of the Battle of Hochkirch; his company held the Hochkirch cemetery long enough for the Prussian army to organise its retreat. [90]
Colonel Karl Friedrich von Moller, 1690–1762. Artillery. Brilliant artillery commander instrumental at the Battle of Rossbach. [91] Lieutenant General Robert Scipio von Lentulus, 1714–1786. Originally in Austrian service, recruited by the "Old Dessauer" to join the Prussian military. Served on several diplomatic missions for Frederick. Governor of Neuchâtel, part of Hohenzollern territory. [92]
Lieutenant General Friedrich Christoph von Saldern, 1719–1785. Infantry. Codified military training and tactics. [93] Lieutenant General and General of Infantry Joachim Friedrich von Stutterheim, 1715–1783. Infantry. Fought in all of Frederick's wars. [94]
Lieutenant General Paul von Werner, 1707–1785. Hussars. Recruited from Habsburg service by Hans Karl von Winterfeldt. [95] Lieutenant General Johann Jakob von Wunsch, 1717–1788. Infantry. Soldier of Fortune. Joined Frederick for the Seven Years' War. Developed Prussian light infantry tactics. [96]
Lieutenant General Christoph Karl von Bülow, 1716–1788. Cavalry. Reliable commander of cavalry regiments throughout the Seven Years' War. In the War of Bavarian Succession, commanded the entire right wing. [97] Lieutenant General Heinrich Gottlob von Braun, 1717–1798. Grenadiers. Participated in Frederick's funeral procession. [98]
Lieutenant General Asmus Ehrenreich von Bredow, 1693–1753. Infantry. Led the Infantry Regiment 21, inducted into Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1753. [99] Lieutenant General Hans-Friedrich von Krusemark, 1720–1775. Cavalry, Gens d'armes. Inspector of cavalry. Appointed to Frederick's general staff. [100]
Field Marshal Wichard von Möllendorf, 1724–1816. Cavalry. Fought in all Prussian wars from 1741 to 1806. Wounded and captured at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honour by Napoleon. [101]

West face

The west face includes 14 men who contributed to the Prussian state as diplomats, authors, jurists, architects, painters and poets. [3]

Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg, 1725–1795. Statesman, diplomat, author. Especially notable in the diplomatic expansion of Prussian territories. [102] Samuel Freiherr von Coccji, 1679–1755. Jurist. Chief Justice. [103]
George Wenzeslaus Freiherr von Knobelsdorff, 1699–1753. Painter, architect. Drafted Frederick's drawings of the proposed Sanssouci into architectural plans and directed its construction. [104] Christian Freiherr von Wolff, 1679–1754. Philosopher, known for ontology or philosophia prima, cosmology, rational psychology, and natural theology. Expelled from Prussia by Frederick William I, invited back by Frederick. [105]
Carl Wilhelm Ramler, 1725–1798. Poet. Taught logic at the Prussian Cadet School; wrote Tod der Jesu, which was later adapted to oratoria by several musicians (including J.S. Bach). Director of the Royal Theater. [106] Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, 1709–1803. Poet. Personal secretary to Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt, accompanied the Prussian army on campaigns in the Silesia wars. Friend of Ewald von Kleist, Garve, Ramler; many of his poems were set to music during the Seven Years' War and became popular as marching tunes and camp ballads. [107]
Christian Garve, 1742–1798. Enlightenment philosopher. An empirical philosopher, he translated a portion of Cicero's De Officiis at Frederick's request and is known also for his translations of Adam Smith's works. [108]  ( DOW ) Ewald Christian von Kleist, 1715–1759. Poet and soldier, killed at the Battle of Kunersdorf. [109]
Johann Friedrich von Domhardt, 1712–1781. State administrator, engineer. Expanded the Angrapa River's flood containment and irrigation systems (1764–1774). Settled 15,000 colonists in East Prussia. Planned the Masurian Canal. [110] Christian Gellert, 1715–1769. Poet and storyteller. Wrote fables, dramatic comedies, and a psychological novel. [111]
Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, 1698–1759. Mathematician. First President of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. [112] Charles-Étienne Jordan, 1700–1745. Literary secretary to Frederick. Author, collector. Descended from Huguenot refugees. [113] [114]
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, 1717–1768. A Hellenist art historian and archaeologist, he first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art. [115] Antoine Pesne, 1683–1757. Artist, Court painter. Director of the Berlin Academy of the Arts [116]

East face

Bronze plaque on the lower east face Reiterstandbild - Friedrich der Grosse - Ostansicht ( Details - unten ).jpg
Bronze plaque on the lower east face

The east face bears the names of Frederick the Great, Frederick William III, and Frederick William IV, along with the dates on which the monument was commissioned and completed.

Other statues of Frederick the Great

Johann Gottfried Schadow, who was Rauch's teacher and had received many commissions under the previous king, Frederick William II, had expected to carry out this commission. He had already in 1821–22 made a lifesize bronze of Frederick the Great with two greyhounds, which is at Sanssouci. [117] [118] He also created a marble statue of Frederick for the city of Stettin, now lost, a bronze reproduction of which is now in the grounds outside the New Wing at Charlottenburg Palace. [119]

In 1865 two students of Rauch's, Aloisio Lazzerini and Carlo Baratta, made an approximately half-size copy in marble of Rauch's equestrian statue, which is in the park at Sanssouci. [120]

Another smaller copy of Rauch's statue was made to commemorate Frederick's overnight stay in the Dehlitz section of Lützen before the Battle of Rossbach in 1757, and stood in a park there from 1858 until World War II, when it was moved for safekeeping to Lützen Castle. [121]

See also

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Christian Johann Christoph Schreiber was a German theologian, philologist, philosopher, and poet. He was also the Superintendent of the dioceses of Lengsfeld and Dermbach. He was connected in friendship or correspondence to writers and philosophers of his time, and published poetry, sermons, historical and philosophical works.

References

  1. ↑ Wolfgang Vomm, Reiterstandbilder des 19. und fruhen 20. Jahrhunderts in Deutschland: zum Verständnis und zur Pflege eines traditionellen herrscherlichen Denkmaltyps im Historismus, dissertation, University of Cologne, 1979, 2 vols. Volume 1 OCLC   256342563, p. 150 (in German); the Berlin city monument page misspells Friebel's name as Carl Triebel.
  2. ↑ Denkmal König Friedrichs des Grossen: enthüllt am 31. Mai 1851, Berlin: Decker, 1851 OCLC   249315081 (in German).
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 "Denkmal König Friedrich II. von Preußen" Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine , Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt, Berlin, revised 10 April 2014 (in German)
  4. ↑ "Das Denkmal Friedrichs des Großen", in Das Berliner Schloss und sein Untergang. Ein Bildbericht über die Zerstörung Berliner Kulturdenkmäler, ed. Karl Rodemann, Berlin: Tauber, 1951, OCLC   17159620, pp. 23–24 (in German).
  5. 1 2 Rudolf Hempel, "Der Ritt in die falsche Richtung", interview with Hans Bentzien, Neues Deutschland , 22 November 1997 (in German) (subscription required).
  6. ↑ Ingrid Mittenzwei  [ de ], Friedrich II. von Preußen. Eine Biographie. Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften / Cologne: Pahl–Rugenstein, 1980, ISBN   3-7609-0512-9 (in German).
  7. ↑ T. H. Elkins with B. Hofmeister, Berlin: The Spatial Structure of a Divided City, London/New York: Methuen, 1988, ISBN   9780416922202, p. 11 (digital ed. p. 10).
  8. ↑ Gottfried Korff  [ de ] (ed.), Preußen – Versuch einer Bilanz, exhibition catalogue, Reinbek bei Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1981. ISBN   3-499-34001-1 (in German).
  9. ↑ Nashenka, "'Der Alte Fritz', Gisela May", Politiek en Cultuur blog, 19 July 2010 (in German).
  10. ↑ "Restaurierung des Bronzestandbildes Friedrich II. wurde fachtechnisch einwandfrei ausgeführt", press release, City of Berlin, 14 June 2001 (in German)
  11. ↑ SAF, "Alter König frisch gereinigt", Berliner Morgenpost , 19 October 2006, archived at the Wayback Machine, 10 March 2007 (in German).
  12. ↑ Hartwig Schmidt, "Architecture and Urban Planning 1850–1914", Berlin/New York: Like and Unlike: Essays on Architecture and Art from 1870 to the Present, ed. Josef Paul Kleihues and Christina Rathgeber, New York: Rizzoli, 1993, ISBN   9780847816576, pp. 128–44, p. 130.
  13. 1 2 Denkmal König Friedrichs des Großen: Enthüllt am 31. Mai 1851, Berlin: Verlag der Deckerschen Geheimen Ober-Hofbuchdruckerei, 1851, repr. Leipzig, 1987 (in German).
  14. ↑ Ernst Graf zur Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Heinrich (Prinz von Preußen)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 11 (1880), pp. 561–68 (in German).
  15. 1 2 Paul Zimmermann,"Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie , Volume 15 (1882), pp. 272–81 (in German).
  16. ↑ Anton Balthasar König, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen, welche sich in Preußischen Diensten berühmt gemacht haben [Biographical Dictionary of all those heroes and military figures who have earned fame in Prussian service], Berlin: A. Wever, 4 vols., 1788–1791, OCLC   34794450, Vol. 4 (1791), p. 2 (in German).
  17. ↑ Bernhard von Poten, "Zieten, Hans Joachim von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 45 (1900), pp. 214–20 (in German).
  18. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Hülsen, Johann Dietrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 13 (1881), p. 334 (in German).
  19. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Dieskau, Karl von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), p. 147 (in German).
  20. ↑ König, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen: T. G-L (1789), pp. 157–60 (in German).
  21. ↑ Michel Huberty, Alain Giraud, F. and B. Magdelaine, L'Allemagne Dynastique, Volume 2: Anhalt-Lippe-Wurtemberg, Le Perreux-sur-Marne: Laballery, 1979, ISBN   978-2-901138-02-0, pp. 459–60, 474–78, 499–500, (in French).
  22. ↑ Poten, "Lestwitz, Hans Sigismund von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 457–58 (in German).
  23. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld "Belling, Wilhelm Sebastian von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 2 (1875), pp. 312–13 (in German).
  24. ↑ Poten, "Prittwitz, Joachim Bernhard von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 26 (1888), pp. 605–06 (in German).
  25. ↑ Richard von Meerheimb, "August Wilhelm (Prinz von Preußen)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 1 (1875), pp. 669–71 (in German).
  26. ↑ Arnold Dietrich Schaefer "Keith, George Graf", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 15 (1882), pp. 551–55 (in German).
  27. ↑ Poten, "Platen, Dubislaw von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 26 (1888), pp. 249–51 (in German).
  28. ↑ Ferdinand Siebigk, "Leopold II. (preußischer Generalfeldmarschall", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 352–56 (in German).
  29. ↑ Ferdinand Spehr, "Friedrich Franz", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 7 (1878), p. 505 (in German).
  30. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Geßler, Friedrich Leopold, Graf von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 9 (1879), p. 95 (in German).
  31. ↑ Poten, "Winterfeldt, Hans Karl von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 43 (1898), pp. 485–90 (in German).
  32. ↑ Poten, "Wedell, Karl Heinrich von (Wedel)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 41 (1896), pp. 410–13 (in German).
  33. ↑ Carl Christian Redlich, "Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 19 (1884), pp. 756–802.
  34. 1 2 Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Ferdinand (Prinz von Preußen)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 6 (1877), p. 709 (in German).
  35. ↑ Siegfried Isaacsohn, "Finck von Finckenstein, Karl Wilhelm Graf", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 7 (1878), pp. 22–25 (in German).
  36. ↑ Siebigk, "Leopold I. (Fürst von Anhalt-Dessau)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 336–52 (in German).
  37. ↑ Colmar Grünhagen, "Schlabrendorff, Ernst Wilhelm von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 31 (1890), pp. 316–19 (in German).
  38. ↑ Poten, "Schwerin, Kurd (Kurt) Christoph Graf von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 33 (1891), pp. 421–25 (in German).
  39. ↑ Georg Friedrich Felix Eberty, "Carmer, Johann Heinrich Casimir Graf von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 4 (1876), pp. 1–3 (in German).
  40. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, Richard von Meerheimb, "Kleist, Friedrich Wilhelm von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 16 (1882), pp. 123–24.
  41. ↑ Moritz Fürstenau, "Graun, Carl Heinrich", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 9 (1879), pp. 607–09 (in German).
  42. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Goltz, Karl Christoph Freiherr von der", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 9 (1879), pp. 357–58 (in German).
  43. ↑ "Kant". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary , retrieved 12 March 2017.
  44. ↑ Carl von Prantl, "Kant, Immanuel", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 15 (1882), pp. 81–97 (in German).
  45. ↑ Poten, "Wartenberg, Hartwig Karl von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 41 (1896), pp. 193–94.
  46. ↑ Poten "Linger, Christian von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 709–10 (in German).
  47. ↑ Poten, "Lehwaldt, Hans von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 166–67 (in German).
  48. ↑ Poten, "Rothenburg, Friedrich Rudolf Graf", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 29 (1889), pp. 358–59 (in German).
  49. ↑ Poten,"Katzeler, Nikolaus Andreas von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 15 (1882), pp. 457–58 (in German).
  50. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Buddenbrock, Wilhelm Dietrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 3 (1876), p. 500 (in German).
  51. ↑ Poten, "Truchseß, Friedrich Sebastian Wunibald Graf", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 38 (1894), pp. 678–79 (in German).
  52. ↑ Ferdinand Siebigk, "Moritz (preußischer Feldmarschall)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 22 (1885), pp. 263–68 (in German).
  53. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Hautcharmoy, Heinrich Karl Ludwig de Herault Seigneur de", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 11 (1880), p. 113 (in German).
  54. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Dohna-Schlodien, Christoph Graf von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), pp. 302–03 (in German).
  55. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Kalckstein, Christoph Wilhelm von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 15 (1882), pp. 17–18 (in German).
  56. ↑ Poten, "Nassau, Christof Ernst Graf von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 23 (1886), pp. 262–63 (in German).
  57. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Karl Friedrich Albrecht", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 15 (1882), p. 263 (in German).
  58. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Motte-Fouqué, Heinrich August Freiherr de la", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 7 (1878), pp. 201–02 (in German).
  59. ↑ Heinrich Pröhle, "Stille, Christoph Ludwig von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 36 (1893), pp. 240–45 (in German).
  60. ↑ Ernst Friedländer, "Jeetze, Joachim Christoph von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 13 (1881), pp. 751–53 (in German).
  61. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Du Moulin, Peter Ludwig", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), p. 466 (in German).
  62. ↑ Meerheimb, "August Wilhelm (preußischer General)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 1 (1875), pp. 665–67 (in German). Also called Brunswick-Bevern in English sources.
  63. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, Georg Ludwig (Herzog von Schleswig-Holstein)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 8 (1878), p. 698 (in German).
  64. ↑ König, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen: T. M-See (1790), pp. 441–44 (in German).
  65. ↑ Siebigk, Dietrich (Fürst von Anhalt-Dessau)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), pp. 172–75 (in German).
  66. ↑ König, "Frederick William of Brandenburg-Schwedt", Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen, Vol. 1 (1788), pp. 211–12 (in German).
  67. ↑ König, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen, Vol. 1 (1788), p. 430 (in German).
  68. ↑ König, Biographisches Lexikon aller Helden und Militairpersonen, Vol. 1 (1788), p. 255 (in German).
  69. ↑ Poten, "Neuwied, Karl Graf von Wied zu", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 23 (1886), pp. 558–59 (in German).
  70. ↑ Ernst Friedländer, "Itzenplitz, August Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 14 (1881), pp. 648–49 (in German).
  71. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Driesen, Georg Wilhelm von". , Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), pp. 410–11 (in German).
  72. ↑ Poten, "Retzow, Wolf Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 28, pp. 277–78 (in German).
  73. ↑ Poten, "Schwerin, Otto Magnus von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 33 (1891), pp. 425–26 (in German).
  74. ↑ "Waldow, Arnold Christoph von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 40 (1896), pp. 720–21 (in German).
  75. ↑ Julius Mebes, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Brandenburgisch-Preussischen Staates, 2 vols., Berlin: Lüderitz, 1861–1867, OCLC   54684371, Vol. 1, p. 397 (in German).
  76. ↑ Poten, "Schoenaich-Carolath, Karl Friedrich Fürst von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 32 (1891), p. 256 (in German).
  77. ↑ Gottfried von Bülow, "Bonin", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 3 (1876), pp. 127–28 (in German).
  78. ↑ Poten, "Tresckow, Joachim Christian von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 38 (1894), pp. 576–77 (in German).
  79. ↑ Poten, "Pennavaire, Peter von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 25 (1887), pp. 356–57.
  80. ↑ Poten, "Lattorf, Christoph Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 19–20 (in German).
  81. ↑ Poten, "Manteuffel, Heinrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 20 (1884), pp. 259–60 (in German).
  82. ↑ Poten, "Krockow, Anton von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 17 (1883), pp. 174–75 (in German).
  83. ↑ Poten, "Platen, Dubislaw von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 26 (1888), pp. 249–51 (in German).
  84. ↑ Rudolf Falkmann, "Wilhelm (Graf von Schaumburg-Lippe)", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 43 (1898), pp. 202–03 (in German).
  85. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Gaudy, Friedrich Wilhelm von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 8 (1878), pp. 419–20 (in German).
  86. ↑ Poten, "Wedell, Karl Heinrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 41 (1896), pp. 410–13 (in German).
  87. ↑ Poten, "Wobersnow, Moritz Franz Kasimir von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 43 (1898), p. 700 (in German).
  88. ↑ Poten, "Puttkamer, Georg Ludwig von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 26 (1888), pp. 777–79 (in German)
  89. ↑ Poten, "Wakenitz, Wilhelm Dietrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 40 (1896), pp. 635–38 (in German).
  90. ↑ Knights of Malta, Brandenburg, Johanniter-Ordensblatt: Amtliche Monatschrift der Balley Brandenburg, Volume 45, issue 52, 28 December 1904, p. 307 (in German).
  91. ↑ Poten, "Moller, Karl Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 22 (1885), pp. 127–28.
  92. ↑ Poten, "Lentulus, Rupert Scipio von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 18 (1883), pp. 267–68 (in German).
  93. ↑ Poten, "Saldern, Christoph von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 30 (1890), pp. 211–13 (in German).
  94. ↑ Poten, "Stutterheim, Joachim Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 37 (1894), pp. 74–75 (in German).
  95. ↑ Poten, "Werner, Paul von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 42 (1897), pp. 63–66 (in German).
  96. ↑ Albert Pfister, "Drei Schwaben in fremden Kriegsdiensten. Graf Harsch. Herwarth von Bittenfeld. Joh. Jak. Wunsch", Württembergische Neujahrsblätter 12 (1895), pp. 33–50 (in German).
  97. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Bülow Christoph Karl von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 3 (1876), pp. 514–15 (in German).
  98. ↑ Kurt von Priesdorff, Soldatisches Führertum Vol. 2, Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, [1937], OCLC   1070138416, pp. 100–01 (in German).
  99. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Bredow, Asmus Ehrenreich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 3 (1876), p. 282 (in German).
  100. ↑ Poten, "Krusemarck, Hans Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 17 (1883), p. 270 (in German).
  101. ↑ Poten, "Möllendorff, Wichard von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 22 (1885), pp. 120–121 (in German).
  102. ↑ Stephan Skalweit, "Hertzberg, Ewald Friedrich Graf (preußischer Graf 1786) von", Neue Deutsche Biographie , Volume 8 (1969), pp. 715–17 (in German).
  103. ↑ Erich Döhring, "Cocceji, Samuel Freiherr von", Neue Deutsche Biographie, Volume 3 (1957), pp. 301–02 (in German).
  104. ↑ Hans Reuther, "Knobelsdorff, Georg Wenceslaus", Neue Deutsche Biographie, Volume 12 (1979), pp. 191–93 (in German).
  105. ↑ W. Schrader, "Wolff, Christian", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 44 (1898), pp.  12–28 (in German).
  106. ↑ Eberhard Fromm, "Ramler, Karl Wilhelm", Neue Deutsche Biographie, Volume 21 (2003), p. 131 (in German).
  107. ↑ Wilhelm Creizenach, "Gleim, Ludwig", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 9 (1879), pp. 228–33 (in German).
  108. ↑ Daniel Jacoby, "Garve, Christian", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 8 (1878), pp. 385–92 (in German).
  109. ↑ Rudolf Schwarze, "Kleist, Ewald Christian von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 16 (1882), pp. 113–21 (in German).
  110. ↑ Lippe-Weißenfeld, "Domhardt, Johann Friedrich von", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 5 (1877), pp. 325–26 (in German).
  111. ↑ Kurt Wölfel, "Gellert, Christian Fürchtegott", Neue Deutsche Biographie, Volume 6 (1964), pp. 174–75 (in German).
  112. ↑ Reinhold Koser, "Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 20 (1884), pp. 691–93 (in German).
  113. ↑ Jonathan I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750, Oxford / New York: Oxford University, 2001, ISBN   9780198206088, p. i.
  114. ↑ Theodor Hirsch, "Jordan, Charles Etienne", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 14 (1881), pp. 504–06.
  115. ↑ Julius Vogel, "Winckelmann, Johann Joachim", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 43 (1898), pp. 343–62 (in German).
  116. ↑ Franz Weinitz, "Pesne, Antoine", Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Volume 25 (1887), pp. 430–32 (in German).
  117. ↑ Georg Sello, Potsdam und Sans-Souci: Forschungen und Quellen zur Geschichte von Burg, Stadt und Park, Breslau: Schottlaender, 1888, OCLC   41962704, p. 133 (in German)
  118. ↑ Gisold Lammel, Kunst im Aufbruch: Malerei, Graphik und Plastik zur Zeit Goethes, Stuttgart: Metzler, 1998, ISBN   9783476015945, p. 502 (in German).
  119. ↑ Friedrich Benninghoven, Helmut Börsch-Supan and Iselin Gundermann, Friedrich der Grosse: Ausstellung des Geheimen Staatsarchivs Preussischer Kulturbesitz anlässlich des 200. Todestages König Friedrichs II. von Preussen, exhibition catalogue, Berlin: Nicolai, 1986, ISBN   9783875841725, p. 337 (in German).
  120. ↑ Georg Hermann, Spaziergang in Potsdam: Nachricht aus einer versunkenen Stadt, Berlin: Christian Blöss, 2014, ISBN   9783934378544, p. 74, n. 44 (in German).
  121. ↑ "Gutspark Dehlen", Ausflüge in Lützen und Umgebung, Town of Lützen, retrieved 28 January 2015 (in German).

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