Golden Age of India

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Certain historical time periods have been named "golden ages ", where development flourished, including on the Indian subcontinent. [1] [2]

Contents

Ancient era

Maurya Empire under king Ashoka, c.250 BCE. India 250 BC.jpg
Maurya Empire under king Ashoka, c.250 BCE.

Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire (321–185 BC) was the largest and one of the most powerful empires to exist in the history of the Indian subcontinent. This era was accompanied by high levels of cultural development and economic prosperity. The empire saw significant advancements in the fields of literature, science, art, and architecture. Important works like the Arthashastra and Sushruta Samhita were written and expanded in this period. [4] The earlier development of the Brahmi script and Prakrit languages took place during this period, and these later formed the bases of other languages. This era also saw the emergence of scholars like Acharya Pingal and Patanjali, who made great advancements in the fields of mathematics, poetry, and yoga. [5] The Maurya Empire was notable for its efficient administrative system, which included a large network of officials and bureaucrats as well as a sophisticated system of taxation and a well-organized army. [6] [7]

According to estimates given by historians, during the Maurya era, the Indian subcontinent generated close to one third of global GDP, which would be the highest the region would ever contribute. [8]

The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (375-415) Map of the Gupta Empire.png
The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (375–415)

Classical era

Gupta Empire

The period between the 4th and 6th centuries CE is known as the Golden Age of India because of the considerable achievements that were made in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, science, religion, and philosophy, during the Gupta Empire. [9] [10] The decimal numeral system, including the concept of zero, was invented in India during this period. [11] The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India. [12] [13] [14] The Golden Age of India came to an end when the Hunas invaded the Gupta Empire, in the 6th century CE, although this characterisation has been disputed by some other historians. [note 1] [note 2] The gross domestic product (GDP) of ancient India was estimated to be 32% and 28% of global GDP in 1 AD and 1000 AD, respectively. [17] Also, during the first millennium of the Common Era, the Indian population comprised approximately 27.15%–30.3% of the total world population. [18] [19] [20]

Late Middle Ages and early modern era

Mughal Empire

Map of the Mughal Empire at its greatest extent, under Aurangzeb C.1707 Joppen1907India1700a.jpg
Map of the Mughal Empire at its greatest extent, under Aurangzeb C.1707

The Mughal Empire has often been called the last golden age of India. [22] [23] It was founded in 1526 by Babur of the Barlas clan, after his victories at the First Battle of Panipat and the Battle of Khanwa, against the Delhi Sultanate and Rajput Confederation, respectively. [24] [25] Over the following centuries, under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire would grow in area and power and dominate the Indian subcontinent, reaching its maximum extent under Aurangzeb. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, [26] [27] following which it gradually converted from a centralised autocracy into a collection of autonomous vassal states who accepted the nominal suzerainty of the emperor. The empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. [28]

A major sector of the Mughal economy was agriculture. [29] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo, and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow maize and tobacco, imported from the Americas. [29] The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, started by Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants, [30] and built irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production. [29]

Manufacturing was also a significant contributor to the Mughal economy; the empire produced about 25% of the world's industrial output until the end of the 18th century. [31] Manufactured goods and cash crops were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils, and butter [29] The Mughal Empire also took advantage of the demand for Indian products in Europe, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). [29] European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. [32]

The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins. [33] By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East. [34] The most important centre of cotton production was Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka. [35]

Notes

  1. ↑ According to D. N. Jha, caste distinctions became more entrenched and rigid during this time, as prosperity and the favour of the law accrued to the top of the social scale, while the lower orders were degraded further. [15]
  2. ↑ "Historians once regarded the Gupta period (c.320–540) as the classical age of India [...] It was also thought to have been an age of material prosperity, particularly among the urban elite [...] Some of these assumptions have been questioned by more extensive studies of the post-Mauryan, pre-Gupta period. Archaeological evidence from the earlier Kushan levels suggests greater material prosperity, to such a degree that some historians argue for an urban decline in the Gupta period." [16]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aurangzeb</span> Mughal emperor from 1658 to 1707

Muhi al-Din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb, was the sixth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1658 until his death in 1707. His regnal name is Alamgir I, which derived from his title, Abu al-Muzaffar Muhi-ad-Din Muhammad Bahadur Alamgir Aurangzeb Badshah al-Ghazi. Under his emperorship, Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent with territory spanning nearly the entirety of the Indian subcontinent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of India</span>

Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system, incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent</span> Era in South Asia characterized by Muslim rule

Muslim period in the Indian subcontinent is conventionally said to have started in 712, after the conquest of Sindh and Multan by the Umayyad Caliphate under the military command of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim. It began in the Indian subcontinent in the course of a gradual conquest. The perfunctory rule by the Ghaznavids in Punjab was followed by Ghurids, and Sultan Muhammad of Ghor is generally credited with laying the foundation of Muslim rule in Northern India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Emperor of Hindustan</span>

The emperors of the Mughal Empire, styled the Emperors of Hindustan, who were all members of the Timurid dynasty, ruled over the empire from its inception in 1526 to its dissolution in 1857. They were the supreme monarchs of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent, mainly corresponding to the modern countries of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. They ruled parts of India from 1526, and by 1707, ruled most of the subcontinent. Afterwards, they declined rapidly, but nominally ruled territories until the Indian Rebellion of 1857, where they gave their last stand against the invading British forces in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Punjab</span>

The History of Punjab refers to the past history of Punjab region which is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in the northwest of South Asia, comprising eastern Punjab province in Pakistan and western Punjab state in India. It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab traces to the Soan valley of the Pothohar, between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers, where Soanian culture developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in the second Ice Age, from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mughal architecture</span> 16th–18th-century Indo-Islamic architecture

Mughal architecture is the type of Indo-Islamic architecture developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in the Indian subcontinent. It developed from the architectural styles of earlier Muslim dynasties in India and from Iranian and Central Asian architectural traditions, particularly Timurid architecture. It also further incorporated and syncretized influences from wider Indian architecture, especially during the reign of Akbar. Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation; examples of the style can be found in modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Economic history of India</span>

Around 500 BC, the Mahajanapadas minted punch-marked silver coins. The period was marked by intensive trade activity and urban development. By 300 BC, the Maurya Empire had united most of the Indian subcontinent including Tamilakam, which was ruled by Three Crowned Kings. The resulting political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medieval India</span> Period of South Asian history

Medieval India refers to a long period of post-classical history of the Indian subcontinent between the "ancient period" and "modern period". It is usually regarded as running approximately from the break-up of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE to the start of the early modern period in 1526 with the start of the Mughal Empire, although some historians regard it as both starting and finishing later than these points. The medieval period is itself subdivided into the early medieval and late medieval eras.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Bengal</span>

The history of Bengal is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent and the surrounding regions of South Asia and Southeast Asia. It includes modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam's Karimganj district, located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, at the apex of the Bay of Bengal and dominated by the fertile Ganges delta. The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai, a powerful kingdom whose war elephant forces led the withdrawal of Alexander the Great from India. Some historians have identified Gangaridai with other parts of India. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers act as a geographic marker of the region, but also connects the region to the broader Indian subcontinent. Bengal, at times, has played an important role in the history of the Indian subcontinent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mughal dynasty</span> Dynasty of the Mughal Empire

The Mughal dynasty was a dynasty which comprised the members of the imperial House of Babur (Persian: خاندانِ آلِ بابُر; Khāndān-e-Āl-e-Bābur), also known as the Gurkanis, who ruled the Mughal Empire from c. 1526 to 1857.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Khan Mughals</span>

The Khan Mughal are a clan of the Chaghatai Mughal tribe found in and around Kashmir and Punjab, particularly near the mountains of the Pir Panjal Range and the city of Nabeel. They traditionally assert descent from the Barlas tribe of the Mughals who ruled over the Indian subcontinent. Their ancestors initially spoke Urdu, Persian and Chagatai language. The renowned Dhaka Nawab dynasty averred descent from the Khan Mughal clans of Iranian Azerbaijan.

History of Sialkot, the capital of Sialkot District, is a city situated in the north-east of the Punjab province in Pakistan at the feet of the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir near the Chenab river. The city is about 125 km (78 mi) north-west of Lahore and only a few kilometres from Jammu in India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mughal Empire</span> 1526–1857 empire in South Asia

The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bengal Subah</span> Subdivision of the Mughal Empire

The Bengal Subah, also referred to as Mughal Bengal, was the largest subdivision of the Mughal Empire encompassing much of the Bengal region, which includes modern-day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, and some parts of the present-day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha between the 16th and 18th centuries. The state was established following the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate, a major trading nation in the world, when the region was absorbed into the Mughal Empire. Bengal was the wealthiest region in the Indian subcontinent.

Mughal artillery included a variety of cannons, rockets, and mines employed by the Mughal Empire. This gunpowder technology played an important role in the formation and expansion of the empire. In the opening lines of Abul Fazl's famous text Ain-i-Akbari, he claims that "except for the Mediterranean/Ottoman territories (Rumistan), in no other place was gunpowder artillery available in such abundance as in the Mughal Empire." Thereby subtly referring to the superiority of the empire's artillery over the Safavids and Shaibanids. During the reign of the first three Timurid rulers of India—Babur, Humayun, and Akbar—gunpowder artillery had "emerged as an important equipage of war, contributing significantly to the establishment of a highly centralized state structure under Akbar and to the consolidation of Mughal rule in the conquered territories."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Uttar Pradesh</span> History of the state in Northern India

The history of Uttar Pradesh, a state in India, stretches back several millennia. The region shows the presence of human habitation dating back to between 85,000 and 73,000 years ago. Additionally, the region seems to have been domesticated as early as 6,000 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Muslin trade in Bengal</span>

Muslin, a Phuti carpus cotton fabric of plain weave, was historically hand woven in the areas of Dhaka and Sonargaon in Bangladesh and exported for many centuries. The region forms the eastern part of the historic region of Bengal. The muslin trade at one time made the Ganges delta and what is now Bangladesh into one of the most prosperous parts of the world. Of all the unique elements that must come together to manufacture muslin, none is as unique as the cotton, the famous "phuti karpas", scientifically known as Gossypium arboreum var. neglecta. Dhaka muslin was immensely popular and sold across the globe for millennia. Muslin from "India" is mentioned in the book Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, authored by an anonymous Egyptian merchant around 2,000 years ago, it was appreciated by the Ancient Greeks and Romans, and the fabled fabric was the pinnacle of European fashion in the 18th and 19th century. Production ceased sometime in the late 19th century, as the Bengali muslin industry could no longer compete against cheaper British-made textiles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire</span> Foreign relations of the Mughal Empire

The foreign relations of the Mughal Empire were characterized by competition with the Persian Empire to the west, the Marathas and others to the south, and the British to the east. Steps were taken by successive Mughal rulers to secure the western frontiers of India. The Khyber Pass along the Kabul- Qandahar route was the natural defence for India, and their foreign policy revolved around securing these outposts, as also balancing the rise of powerful empires in the region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mughal Karkhanas</span> Mughal manufacturing houses and workshops in South Asia

Mughal karkhanas were the manufacturing houses and workshops for craftsmen, established by the Mughals in their empire. Karkhana is a Hindustani language word that means factory. These karkhanas were small manufacturing units for various arts and crafts as well as for the emperor's household and military needs. karkhanas were named and classified based on the nature of the job. For example, 'Rangkhana' and 'Chhapakhana' were for textile dyeing and printing work. The term 'tushak-khana' was used to describe workshops that made shawls and embellished them with embroidery or needlework. Imperial or Royal Karkhanas were for luxury goods and weapons. The karkhanas were the place for various production activities and also for the exploration of new techniques and innovations. Some operations such as weaving, embroidery work, and brocade work were often done under one roof, resembling an integrated assembly line.

The Mughal Empire's economic prowess and sophisticated infrastructure played a pivotal role in shaping the Indian subcontinent's history. While Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, the Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar. The economy in the South Asia during the Mughal Empire era performed just as it did in medieval times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions. Mughal India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, an inspiration for 18th-century putting-out system of Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution. It was described as large and prosperous. India producing about 28% of the world's industrial output up until the 18th century with significant exports in textiles, shipbuilding, and steel, driving a strong export-driven economy. While at the start of 17th century, the economic expansion within Mughal territories become the largest and surpassed Qing dynasty and Europe. The share of world's economy grew from 22.7% in 1600, which at the end of 16th century, has surpassed China to become the world's largest GDP. Bengal Subah, the empire's wealthiest province alone, the province statistically has contributed to 12% of Gross domestic product and a major hub for industries, contributing significantly to global trade and European imports, particularly in textiles and shipbuilding.

References

  1. ↑ The Mughal World, p. 386, Abraham Eraly, Penguin Books
  2. ↑ Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa p. 29, Andrea L. Stanton, SAGE
  3. ↑ Joppen, Charles. Historical atlas of India, for the use of high schools, colleges and private students. Cornell University Library. London; New York: Longmans, Green. pp. map 2.
  4. ↑ Olivelle 2013, pp. 30–31.
  5. ↑ Plofker, Kim (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press. pp.  55–56. ISBN   978-0-691-12067-6.
  6. ↑ The Maurya Empire: The History and Legacy of Ancient India's Greatest Empire. Charles River Editors. 2017.
  7. ↑ Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa p. 29, Andrea L. Stanton, SAGE
  8. ↑ Angus Maddison (2007). Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN   978-0-19-922721-1.
  9. ↑ Building Bridges Among the BRICs, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014
  10. ↑ Keay, John (2000). India: A history. Atlantic Monthly Press. p.  132. ISBN   978-0-87113-800-2. The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature, art and science was now dawning. It was this of creativity and scholarship, as much as ... political achievements of the Guptas, which would make their age so golden.
  11. ↑ "THE GUPTA EMPIRE OF INDIA 320-720".
  12. ↑ Padma Sudhi. Gupta Art: A Study from Aesthetic and Canonical Norms. Galaxy Publications. p. 7-17.
  13. ↑ Lee Engfer (2002). India in Pictures . Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN   9780822503712.
  14. ↑ "Patanjali", Wikipedia, 13 April 2023, retrieved 14 April 2023
  15. ↑ Jha, D.N. (2002). Ancient India in Historical Outline. Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors. pp. 149–73. ISBN   978-81-7304-285-0.
  16. ↑ Pletcher 2011, p. 90.
  17. ↑ Angus Maddison (2007). Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN   978-0-19-922721-1.
  18. ↑ Angus Maddison (2007). Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN   978-0-19-922721-1.
  19. ↑ Building Bridges Among the BRICs, p. 125, Robert Crane, Springer, 2014
  20. ↑ Raghu Vamsa v 4.60–75
  21. ↑ Joppen, Charles. Historical atlas of India, for the use of high schools, colleges and private students. Cornell University Library. London; New York: Longmans, Green. pp. map 13.
  22. ↑ "Emperor Shah Jahan and Building Up the Mughal Empire, 1628–58/66", A Short History of the Mughal Empire, I.B.Tauris, 2016, ISBN   978-1-84885-872-5 , retrieved 28 June 2024
  23. ↑ Malieckal, Bindu (2009), Johanyak, Debra; Lim, Walter S. H. (eds.), "As Good as Gold", The English Renaissance, Orientalism, and the Idea of Asia, New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, pp. 131–159, doi:10.1057/9780230106222_7, ISBN   978-0-230-10622-2 , retrieved 28 June 2024
  24. ↑ Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa. p. 454. ISBN   9788129115010. From Baburs memoirs we learn that Sanga's success against the Mughal advance guard commanded by Abdul Aziz and other forces at Bayana, severely demoralised the fighting spirit of Baburs troops encamped near Sikri.
  25. ↑ Berndl, Klaus (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. National Geographic Society. pp. 318–320. ISBN   978-0-7922-3695-5.
  26. ↑ Stein, Burton (2010), A History of India, John Wiley & Sons, p. 159, ISBN   978-1-4443-2351-1 Quote: "The imperial career of the Mughal house is conventionally reckoned to have ended in 1707 when the emperor Aurangzeb, a fifth-generation descendant of Babur, died. His fifty-year reign began in 1658 with the Mughal state seeming as strong as ever or even stronger. But in Aurangzeb's later years the state was brought to the brink of destruction, over which it toppled within a decade and a half after his death; by 1720 imperial Mughal rule was largely finished and an epoch of two imperial centuries had closed."
  27. ↑ Richards, John F. (1995), The Mughal Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. xv, ISBN   978-0-521-56603-2 Quote: "By the latter date (1720) the essential structure of the centralized state was disintegrated beyond repair."
  28. ↑ "Picture of original Mughal rupiya introduced by Sher Shah Suri". Archived from the original on 5 October 2002. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 Schmidt, Karl J. (2015). An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Routledge. pp. 100–. ISBN   978-1-317-47681-8.
  30. ↑ Pagaza, Ignacio; Argyriades, Demetrios (2009). Winning the Needed Change: Saving Our Planet Earth. IOS Press. p. 129. ISBN   978-1-58603-958-5.
  31. ↑ Jeffrey G. Williamson & David Clingingsmith, India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries Archived 29 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine , Global Economic History Network, London School of Economics
  32. ↑ Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference US, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017
  33. ↑ Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011), Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850, Cambridge University Press, p. 2, ISBN   978-1-139-49889-0
  34. ↑ Jeffrey G. Williamson (2011). Trade and Poverty: When the Third World Fell Behind. MIT Press. p. 91. ISBN   978-0-262-29518-5.
  35. ↑ Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, p. 202, University of California Press

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