Hubble sequence

Last updated

The Hubble sequence is a morphological classification scheme for galaxies published by Edwin Hubble in 1926. [1] [2] [3] [4] It is often colloquially known as the Hubble tuning-fork diagram because the shape in which it is traditionally represented resembles a tuning fork. It was invented by John Henry Reynolds and Sir James Jeans. [5]

Contents

Tuning-fork style diagram of the Hubble sequence Hubble Tuning Fork diagram.svg
Tuning-fork style diagram of the Hubble sequence

The tuning fork scheme divided regular galaxies into three broad classes – ellipticals, lenticulars and spirals – based on their visual appearance (originally on photographic plates). A fourth class contains galaxies with an irregular appearance. The Hubble sequence is the most commonly used system for classifying galaxies, both in professional astronomical research and in amateur astronomy.

Classes of galaxies

Ellipticals

The giant elliptical galaxy ESO 325-G004. Abell S740, cropped to ESO 325-G004.jpg
The giant elliptical galaxy ESO 325-G004.

On the left (in the sense that the sequence is usually drawn) lie the ellipticals. Elliptical galaxies have relatively smooth, featureless light distributions and appear as ellipses in photographic images. They are denoted by the letter E, followed by an integer n representing their degree of ellipticity in the sky. By convention, n is ten times the ellipticity of the galaxy, rounded to the nearest integer, where the ellipticity is defined as   e = 1 −  b /a   for an ellipse with a the semi-major axis length and b the semi-minor axis length. [6] The ellipticity increases from left to right on the Hubble diagram, with near-circular (E0) galaxies situated on the very left of the diagram. It is important to note that the ellipticity of a galaxy on the sky is only indirectly related to the true 3-dimensional shape (for example, a flattened, discus-shaped galaxy can appear almost round if viewed face-on or highly elliptical if viewed edge-on). Observationally, the most flattened "elliptical" galaxies have ellipticities  e = 0.7   (denoted E7). However, from studying the light profiles and the ellipticity profiles, rather than just looking at the images, it was realised in the 1960s that the E5–E7 galaxies are probably misclassified lenticular galaxies with large-scale disks seen at various inclinations to our line-of-sight. [7] [8] Observations of the kinematics of early-type galaxies further confirmed this. [9] [10] [11]

Examples of elliptical galaxies: M49, M59, M60, M87, NGC 4125.

Lenticulars

The Spindle Galaxy (NGC 5866), a lenticular galaxy with a prominent dust lane in the constellation of Draco. Ngc5866 hst big rotated.jpg
The Spindle Galaxy (NGC 5866), a lenticular galaxy with a prominent dust lane in the constellation of Draco.

At the centre of the Hubble tuning fork, where the two spiral-galaxy branches and the elliptical branch join, lies an intermediate class of galaxies known as lenticulars and given the symbol S0. These galaxies consist of a bright central bulge, similar in appearance to an elliptical galaxy, surrounded by an extended, disk-like structure. Unlike spiral galaxies, the disks of lenticular galaxies have no visible spiral structure and are not actively forming stars in any significant quantity.

When simply looking at a galaxy's image, lenticular galaxies with relatively face-on disks are difficult to distinguish from ellipticals of type E0–E3, making the classification of many such galaxies uncertain. When viewed edge-on, the disk becomes more apparent and prominent dust-lanes are sometimes visible in absorption at optical wavelengths.

At the time of the initial publication of Hubble's galaxy classification scheme, the existence of lenticular galaxies was purely hypothetical. Hubble believed that they were necessary as an intermediate stage between the highly flattened "ellipticals" and spirals. Later observations (by Hubble himself, among others) showed Hubble's belief to be correct and the S0 class was included in the definitive exposition of the Hubble sequence by Allan Sandage. [12] Missing from the Hubble sequence are the early-type galaxies with intermediate-scale disks, in between the E0 and S0 types, Martha Liller denoted them ES galaxies in 1966.

Lenticular and spiral galaxies, taken together, are often referred to as disk galaxies. The bulge-to-disk flux ratio in lenticular galaxies can take on a range of values, just as it does for each of the spiral galaxy morphological types (Sa, Sb, etc.). [13]

Examples of lenticular galaxies: M85, M86, NGC 1316, NGC 2787, NGC 5866, Centaurus A.

Spirals

The Pinwheel Galaxy (Messier 101/NGC 5457): a spiral galaxy classified as type Scd on the Hubble sequence M101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg
The Pinwheel Galaxy (Messier 101/NGC 5457): a spiral galaxy classified as type Scd on the Hubble sequence
The barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300: a type SBbc Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg
The barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300: a type SBbc

On the right of the Hubble sequence diagram are two parallel branches encompassing the spiral galaxies. A spiral galaxy consists of a flattened disk, with stars forming a (usually two-armed) spiral structure, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. Roughly half of all spirals are also observed to have a bar-like structure, with the bar extending from the central bulge, and the arms begin at the ends of the bar. In the tuning-fork diagram, the regular spirals occupy the upper branch and are denoted by the letter S, while the lower branch contains the barred spirals, given the symbol SB. Both type of spirals are further subdivided according to the detailed appearance of their spiral structures. Membership of one of these subdivisions is indicated by adding a lower-case letter to the morphological type, as follows:

Hubble originally described three classes of spiral galaxy. This was extended by Gérard de Vaucouleurs [14] to include a fourth class:

Although strictly part of the de Vaucouleurs system of classification, the Sd class is often included in the Hubble sequence. The basic spiral types can be extended to enable finer distinctions of appearance. For example, spiral galaxies whose appearance is intermediate between two of the above classes are often identified by appending two lower-case letters to the main galaxy type (for example, Sbc for a galaxy that is intermediate between an Sb and an Sc).

Our own Milky Way is generally classed as Sc or SBc, [15] making it a barred spiral with well-defined arms.

Examples of regular spiral galaxies: (visually) M31 (Andromeda Galaxy), M74, M81, M104 (Sombrero Galaxy), M51a (Whirlpool Galaxy), NGC 300, NGC 772.

Examples of barred spiral galaxies: M91, M95, NGC 1097, NGC 1300, NGC1672, NGC 2536, NGC 2903.

Irregulars

The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) - a dwarf irregular galaxy Large.mc.arp.750pix.jpg
The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) – a dwarf irregular galaxy

Galaxies that do not fit into the Hubble sequence, because they have no regular structure (either disk-like or ellipsoidal), are termed irregular galaxies. Hubble defined two classes of irregular galaxy: [16]

In his extension to the Hubble sequence, de Vaucouleurs called the Irr I galaxies 'Magellanic irregulars', after the Magellanic Clouds – two satellites of the Milky Way which Hubble classified as Irr I. The discovery of a faint spiral structure [17] in the Large Magellanic Cloud led de Vaucouleurs to further divide the irregular galaxies into those that, like the LMC, show some evidence for spiral structure (these are given the symbol Sm) and those that have no obvious structure, such as the Small Magellanic Cloud (denoted Im). In the extended Hubble sequence, the Magellanic irregulars are usually placed at the end of the spiral branch of the Hubble tuning fork.

Examples of irregular galaxies: M82, NGC 1427A, Large Magellanic Cloud, Small Magellanic Cloud.

Physical significance

Elliptical and lenticular galaxies are commonly referred to together as "early-type" galaxies, while spirals and irregular galaxies are referred to as "late types". This nomenclature is the source of the common, [18] but erroneous, belief that the Hubble sequence was intended to reflect a supposed evolutionary sequence, from elliptical galaxies through lenticulars to either barred or regular spirals. In fact, Hubble was clear from the beginning that no such interpretation was implied:

The nomenclature, it is emphasized, refers to position in the sequence, and temporal connotations are made at one's peril. The entire classification is purely empirical and without prejudice to theories of evolution... [3]

The evolutionary picture appears to be lent weight by the fact that the disks of spiral galaxies are observed to be home to many young stars and regions of active star formation, while elliptical galaxies are composed of predominantly old stellar populations. In fact, current evidence suggests the opposite: the early Universe appears to be dominated by spiral and irregular galaxies. In the currently favored picture of galaxy formation, present-day ellipticals formed as a result of mergers between these earlier building blocks; while some lenticular galaxies may have formed this way, others may have accreted their disks around pre-existing spheroids. [19] [ full citation needed ] Some lenticular galaxies may also be evolved spiral galaxies, whose gas has been stripped away leaving no fuel for continued star formation, [20] although the galaxy LEDA 2108986 opens the debate on this.

Shortcomings

A common criticism of the Hubble scheme is that the criteria for assigning galaxies to classes are subjective, leading to different observers assigning galaxies to different classes (although experienced observers usually agree to within less than a single Hubble type). [21] [22] Although not really a shortcoming, since the 1961 Hubble Atlas of Galaxies, [23] the primary criteria used to assign the morphological type (a, b, c, etc.) has been the nature of the spiral arms, rather than the bulge-to-disk flux ratio, and thus a range of flux ratios exist for each morphological type, [23] [ full citation needed ] [24] [ full citation needed ][ full citation needed ] [25] [ full citation needed ] as with the lenticular galaxies.

Another criticism of the Hubble classification scheme is that, being based on the appearance of a galaxy in a two-dimensional image, the classes are only indirectly related to the true physical properties of galaxies. In particular, problems arise because of orientation effects. The same galaxy would look very different, if viewed edge-on, as opposed to a face-on or 'broadside' viewpoint. As such, the early-type sequence is poorly represented: The ES galaxies are missing from the Hubble sequence, and the E5–E7 galaxies are actually S0 galaxies. Furthermore, the barred ES and barred S0 galaxies are also absent. Visual classifications are also less reliable for faint or distant galaxies, and the appearance of galaxies can change depending on the wavelength of light in which they are observed.

Nonetheless, the Hubble sequence is still commonly used in the field of extragalactic astronomy and Hubble types are known to correlate with many physically relevant properties of galaxies, such as luminosities, colours, masses (of stars and gas) and star formation rates. [26]

In June 2019, citizen scientists in the Galaxy Zoo project argued that the usual Hubble classification, particularly concerning spiral galaxies, may not be supported by evidence. Consequently, the scheme may need revision. [27] [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galaxy</span> Large gravitationally bound system of stars and interstellar matter

A galaxy is a system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter bound together by gravity. The word is derived from the Greek galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally 'milky', a reference to the Milky Way galaxy that contains the Solar System. Galaxies, averaging an estimated 100 million stars, range in size from dwarfs with less than a thousand stars, to the largest galaxies known – supergiants with one hundred trillion stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass. Most of the mass in a typical galaxy is in the form of dark matter, with only a few percent of that mass visible in the form of stars and nebulae. Supermassive black holes are a common feature at the centres of galaxies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Triangulum Galaxy</span> Spiral galaxy in the constellation Triangulum

The Triangulum Galaxy is a spiral galaxy 2.73 million light-years (ly) from Earth in the constellation Triangulum. It is catalogued as Messier 33 or NGC (New General Catalogue) 598. With the D25 isophotal diameter of 18.74 kiloparsecs (61,100 light-years), the Triangulum Galaxy is the third-largest member of the Local Group of galaxies, behind the Andromeda Galaxy and the Milky Way.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elliptical galaxy</span> Spherical or ovoid mass of stars

An elliptical galaxy is a type of galaxy with an approximately ellipsoidal shape and a smooth, nearly featureless image. They are one of the four main classes of galaxy described by Edwin Hubble in his Hubble sequence and 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae, along with spiral and lenticular galaxies. Elliptical (E) galaxies are, together with lenticular galaxies (S0) with their large-scale disks, and ES galaxies with their intermediate scale disks, a subset of the "early-type" galaxy population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spiral galaxy</span> Class of galaxy that has spiral structures extending from their cores.

Spiral galaxies form a class of galaxy originally described by Edwin Hubble in his 1936 work The Realm of the Nebulae and, as such, form part of the Hubble sequence. Most spiral galaxies consist of a flat, rotating disk containing stars, gas and dust, and a central concentration of stars known as the bulge. These are often surrounded by a much fainter halo of stars, many of which reside in globular clusters.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lenticular galaxy</span> Class of galaxy between an elliptical galaxy and a spiral galaxy

A lenticular galaxy is a type of galaxy intermediate between an elliptical and a spiral galaxy in galaxy morphological classification schemes. It contains a large-scale disc but does not have large-scale spiral arms. Lenticular galaxies are disc galaxies that have used up or lost most of their interstellar matter and therefore have very little ongoing star formation. They may, however, retain significant dust in their disks. As a result, they consist mainly of aging stars. Despite the morphological differences, lenticular and elliptical galaxies share common properties like spectral features and scaling relations. Both can be considered early-type galaxies that are passively evolving, at least in the local part of the Universe. Connecting the E galaxies with the S0 galaxies are the ES galaxies with intermediate-scale discs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galactic bulge</span> Tightly packed group of stars within a larger formation

In astronomy, a galactic bulge is a tightly packed group of stars within a larger star formation. The term almost exclusively refers to the central group of stars found in most spiral galaxies. Bulges were historically thought to be elliptical galaxies that happened to have a disk of stars around them, but high-resolution images using the Hubble Space Telescope have revealed that many bulges lie at the heart of a spiral galaxy. It is now thought that there are at least two types of bulges: bulges that are like ellipticals and bulges that are like spiral galaxies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Centaurus A</span> Radio galaxy in the constellation Centaurus

Centaurus A is a galaxy in the constellation of Centaurus. It was discovered in 1826 by Scottish astronomer James Dunlop from his home in Parramatta, in New South Wales, Australia. There is considerable debate in the literature regarding the galaxy's fundamental properties such as its Hubble type and distance. NGC 5128 is one of the closest radio galaxies to Earth, so its active galactic nucleus has been extensively studied by professional astronomers. The galaxy is also the fifth-brightest in the sky, making it an ideal amateur astronomy target. It is only visible from the southern hemisphere and low northern latitudes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Galaxy morphological classification</span> System for categorizing galaxies based on appearance

Galaxy morphological classification is a system used by astronomers to divide galaxies into groups based on their visual appearance. There are several schemes in use by which galaxies can be classified according to their morphologies, the most famous being the Hubble sequence, devised by Edwin Hubble and later expanded by Gérard de Vaucouleurs and Allan Sandage. However, galaxy classification and morphology are now largely done using computational methods and physical morphology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barred spiral galaxy</span> Spiral galaxy with a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars

A barred spiral galaxy is a spiral galaxy with a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. Bars are found in about two thirds of all spiral galaxies in the local universe, and generally affect both the motions of stars and interstellar gas within spiral galaxies and can affect spiral arms as well. The Milky Way Galaxy, where the Solar System is located, is classified as a barred spiral galaxy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 2787</span> Galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major

NGC 2787 is a barred lenticular galaxy approximately 24 million light-years away in the northern constellation of Ursa Major. It was discovered on December 3, 1788 by German-born astronomer William Herschel. J. L. E. Dreyer described it as, "bright, pretty large, a little extended 90°, much brighter middle, mottled but not resolved, very small (faint) star involved to the southeast". The visible galaxy has an angular size of 2.5 × 1.5 arcminutes or 3.24 × 1.81 arcminutes and an apparent visual magnitude of 11.8.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dwarf spiral galaxy</span> Dwarf counterparts of spiral galaxies

A dwarf spiral galaxy is the dwarf version of a spiral galaxy. Dwarf galaxies are characterized as having low luminosities, small diameters, low surface brightnesses, and low hydrogen masses. The galaxies may be considered a subclass of low-surface-brightness galaxies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4710</span> Galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices

NGC 4710 is an edge-on lenticular galaxy in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices. It was discovered on March 21, 1784 by German-British astronomer William Herschel. This galaxy has a B-band visual magnitude of 11.60 and an angular size of 3.0′ × 0.8′. It is located at a distance of 54.5 ± 3.6 million light-years (16.7 ± 1.1 Mpc) from the Milky Way, and is receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of 1,129 km/s. This is a member of the Virgo Cluster, with a projected offset of ~6° from the cluster center and a cluster crossing time of around two billion years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 6340</span> Galaxy in the constellation Draco

NGC 6340 is an unbarred spiral galaxy in the northern constellation of Draco. It was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel on June 6, 1788. The galaxy is located approximately 55 million light-years (17 Mpc) away, and is receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of 1,217 km/s. It is the largest member of a triplet of galaxies known as the NGC 6340 group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 1553</span> Galaxy in the constellation Dorado

NGC 1553 is a prototypical lenticular galaxy in the constellation Dorado. It is the second brightest member of the Dorado Group of galaxies. British astronomer John Herschel discovered NGC 1553 on December 5, 1834 using an 18.7 inch reflector.

The Eridanus Group, sometimes called the Eridanus Cloud, is a nearby loose grouping of galaxies at a mean distance of approximately 75 Mly in the constellation Eridanus. Redshift values show that there are approximately 200 galaxies associated with the group, approximately 70% of which are spiral and irregular type galaxies while the remaining 30% are elliptical and lenticular types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4293</span> Galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices

NGC 4293 is a lenticular galaxy in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices. It was discovered by English astronomer William Herschel on March 14, 1784, who described it as "large, extended, resolvable, 6 or 7′ long". This galaxy is positioned to the north-northwest of the star 11 Comae Berenices and is a member of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies. It is assumed to lie at the same distance as the Virgo Cluster itself: around 54 million light years away. The galaxy spans an apparent area of 5.3 × 3.1 arc minutes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 3941</span> Galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major

NGC 3941 is a barred lenticular galaxy located in the constellation Ursa Major. It is located at a distance of circa 40 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 3941 is about 40,000 light years across. It was discovered by William Herschel in 1787.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 2974</span> Galaxy in the constellation Sextans

NGC 2974 is a lenticular galaxy located in the constellation Sextans. It is located at a distance of circa 90 million light years from Earth, which, given its apparent dimensions, means that NGC 2974 is about 90,000 light years across. It was discovered by William Herschel on January 6, 1785. NGC 2974 is located in the sky about 2 and a half degrees south-south east of Iota Hydrae and more than 6 degrees northeast of Alphard. A 10th magnitude star lies next to the galaxy, thus making it a challenging object at low magnifications. NGC 2974 is part of the Herschel 400 Catalogue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4299</span> Spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo

NGC 4299 is a featureless spiral galaxy located about 55 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo. It was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on March 15, 1784 and is a member of the Virgo Cluster.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 4324</span> Galaxy in the constellation of Virgo

NGC 4324 is a lenticular galaxy located about 85 million light-years away in the constellation Virgo. It was discovered by astronomer Heinrich d'Arrest on March 4, 1862. NGC 4324 has a stellar mass of 5.62 × 1010M☉, and a baryonic mass of 5.88 × 1010M☉. The galaxy's total mass is around 5.25 × 1011M☉. NGC 4324 is notable for having a ring of star formation surrounding its nucleus. It was considered a member of the Virgo II Groups until 1999, when its distance was recalculated and it was placed in the Virgo W Group.

References

  1. ↑ Hubble, E.P. (1926). "Extra-galactic nebulae". Contributions from the Mount Wilson Observatory / Carnegie Institution of Washington. 324: 1–49. Bibcode:1926CMWCI.324....1H.
  2. ↑ Hubble, E.P. (1926). "Extra-galactic nebulae". Astrophysical Journal. 64: 321–369. Bibcode:1926ApJ....64..321H. doi:10.1086/143018.
  3. 1 2 Hubble, E.P. (1927). "The Classification of Spiral Nebulae". The Observatory. 50: 276. Bibcode:1927Obs....50..276H.
  4. ↑ Hubble, E.P. (1936). The realm of the nebulae. Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman memorial lectures. Vol. 25. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN   9780300025002. LCCN   36018182. OCLC   611263346 – via Internet Archive (archive.org).Hubble, Edwin Powell (January 1982). Alt source. Yale University Press. ISBN   0300025009 – via Google Books.
  5. ↑ Block, David L.; Freeman, Ken C. (2015) [14 November 2014]. Freeman, Kenneth; Elmegreen, Bruce; Block, David; Woolway, Matthew (eds.). Lessons from the Local Group. 2014 International conference honoring David Block and Bruce Elmegreen, focusing on the Local Group as an example of galactic-scale processes (softcover ed.). Switzerland: Springer Cham / Springer International Publishing (published 10 September 2016). pp. 1–20. Bibcode:2015llg..book....1B. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10614-4_1. ISBN   978-3-319-37812-1; (hardcover ed.) ISBN   978-3-319-10613-7 (published 3 December 2014);
    "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. Harvard University. 2015. Bibcode:2015llg..book....1B.
  6. ↑ Binney, J.; Merrifield, M. (1998). Galactic Astronomy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-02565-0.
  7. ↑ Liller, Martha (1966). "The distribution of intensity in elliptical galaxies of the Virgo cluster. II". Astrophysical Journal. 146: 28. Bibcode:1966ApJ...146...28L. doi:10.1086/148857;
    Liller, Martha H. (1966). "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. 146. Harvard University: 28. Bibcode:1966ApJ...146...28L. doi:10.1086/148857.
  8. ↑ Gorbachev, V.I. (1970). "The central part of the Coma cluster of galaxies". Soviet Astronomy. 14: 182. Bibcode:1970SvA....14..182G;
    Gorbachev, V. I. (1970). "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. 14. Harvard University: 182. Bibcode:1970SvA....14..182G.
  9. ↑ Graham; Alister W.; Colless, Matthew M.; Busarello, Giovanni; Zaggia, Simone; Longo, Giuseppe (1998). "Extended stellar kinematics of elliptical galaxies in the Fornax cluster". Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement. 133 (3): 325–336. arXiv: astro-ph/9806331 . Bibcode:1998A&AS..133..325G. doi:10.1051/aas:1998325. S2CID   15164368;
    Graham, A. W.; Colless, M. M.; Busarello, G.; Zaggia, S.; Longo, G. (1998). "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. 133. Harvard University: 325. arXiv: astro-ph/9806331 . Bibcode:1998A&AS..133..325G. doi:10.1051/aas:1998325. S2CID   15164368.
  10. ↑ Emsellem, Eric; et al. (2011). "The ATLAS3D project - III. A census of the stellar angular momentum within the effective radius of early-type galaxies: unveiling the distribution of fast and slow rotators". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 414 (2): 888–912. arXiv: 1102.4444 . Bibcode:2011MNRAS.414..888E. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18496.x. S2CID   2707378;
    Emsellem, Eric; Cappellari, Michele; Krajnović, Davor; Alatalo, Katherine; Blitz, Leo; Bois, Maxime; Bournaud, Frédéric; Bureau, Martin; Davies, Roger L.; Davis, Timothy A.; De Zeeuw, P. T.; Khochfar, Sadegh; Kuntschner, Harald; Lablanche, Pierre-Yves; McDermid, Richard M.; Morganti, Raffaella; Naab, Thorsten; Oosterloo, Tom; Sarzi, Marc; Scott, Nicholas; Serra, Paolo; Van De Ven, Glenn; Weijmans, Anne-Marie; Young, Lisa M. (2011). "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. 414 (2). Harvard University: 888. arXiv: 1102.4444 . Bibcode:2011MNRAS.414..888E. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18496.x. S2CID   2707378.
  11. ↑ Krajnović, Davor; et al. (2013). "The ATLAS3D project - XVII. Linking photometric and kinematic signatures of stellar discs in early-type galaxies". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 432 (3): 1768–1795. arXiv: 1210.8167 . Bibcode:2013MNRAS.432.1768K. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts315;
    Krajnović, Davor; Alatalo, Katherine; Blitz, Leo; Bois, Maxime; Bournaud, Frédéric; Bureau, Martin; Cappellari, Michele; Davies, Roger L.; Davis, Timothy A.; De Zeeuw, P. T.; Duc, Pierre-Alain; Emsellem, Eric; Khochfar, Sadegh; Kuntschner, Harald; McDermid, Richard M.; Morganti, Raffaella; Naab, Thorsten; Oosterloo, Tom; Sarzi, Marc; Scott, Nicholas; Serra, Paolo; Weijmans, Anne-Marie; Young, Lisa M. (2013). "ADS abstract". NASA / Astrophysics Data System. 432 (3). Harvard University: 1768. arXiv: 1210.8167 . Bibcode:2013MNRAS.432.1768K. doi:10.1093/mnras/sts315.
  12. ↑ Sandage, A. (1975). "Classification and stellar content of galaxies obtained from direct photography". In Sandage, A.; Sandage, M.; Kristian, J. (eds.). Galaxies and the Universe. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
  13. ↑ Graham, A.; Worley, C. (August 2008). "Inclination- and dust-corrected galaxy parameters: bulge-to-disc ratios and size-luminosity relations". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 388 (4): 1708–1728. arXiv: 0805.3565 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.388.1708G. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13506.x. S2CID   14406950.
  14. ↑ de Vaucouleurs, G.; Oemler, Augustus Jr.; Butcher, Harvey R.; Gunn, James E. (1959). "Classification and Morphology of External Galaxies". Astrophysik IV: Sternsysteme / Astrophysics IV: Stellar Systems. Handbuch der Physik. Vol. 53. pp. 275–310. Bibcode:1959HDP....53..275D. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45932-0_7. ISBN   978-3-642-45934-4.
  15. ↑ Hodge, Paul (1983). "The Hubble type of the Milky Way galaxy". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 95: 721–723. Bibcode:1983PASP...95..721H. doi: 10.1086/131243 . S2CID   121754114.
  16. ↑ Longair, M.S. (1998). Galaxy Formation. New York: Springer. ISBN   3-540-63785-0.
  17. ↑ de Vaucouleurs, G.; Oemler, Augustus Jr.; Butcher, Harvey R.; Gunn, James E. (1955). "Studies of Magellanic Clouds. I. Dimensions and structure of the Large Cloud". The Astronomical Journal . 160: 126–140. Bibcode:1955AJ.....60..126D. doi:10.1086/107173.
  18. ↑ Baldry, I.K. (2008). "Hubble's Galaxy Nomenclature". Astronomy & Geophysics . 49 (5): 5.25–5.26. arXiv: 0809.0125 . Bibcode:2008A&G....49e..25B. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4004.2008.49525.x.
  19. ↑ Graham, Alister W.; Dullo, Bililign T.; Savorgnan, Giulia A.D. (2015), Hiding in plain sight: An abundance of compact massive spheroids in the local universe
  20. ↑ Christensen, Lars Lindberg; de Martin, Davide; Shida, Raquel Yumi (7 April 2010). Cosmic Collisions: The Hubble atlas of merging galaxies. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 24. ISBN   978-0-387-93855-4.
  21. ↑ Dressler, A.; Oemler, Jr., A.; Butcher, H.R.; Gunn, J.E. (July 1994). "The morphology of distant cluster galaxies. 1: HST observations of CL 0939+4713". The Astrophysical Journal . 430 (1): 107–120. Bibcode:1994ApJ...430..107D. doi:10.1086/174386.
  22. ↑ Lahav, O.; Naim, A.; Buta, R. J.; Corwin, H. G.; de Vaucouleurs, G.; Dressler, A.; Huchra, J. P.; van den Bergh, S.; Raychaudhury, S.; Sodré, L.; Storrie-Lombardi, M. C. (1995-02-10). "Galaxies, Human Eyes, and Artificial Neural Networks". Science. 267 (5199): 859–862. arXiv: astro-ph/9412027 . Bibcode:1995Sci...267..859L. doi:10.1126/science.267.5199.859. ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   17813914.
  23. 1 2 Sandage, Allan (1961). The Hubble Atlas of Galaxies.
  24. ↑ Vorontsov-vel'Yaminov, B.A.; Arkhipova, V.P. (1962), Morphological catalogue of galaxies. Part 1.
  25. ↑ Vorontsov-Vel'Yaminov, B.A.; Noskova, R.I. (1973) Photometric Parameters of Flat Galaxies.
  26. ↑ Roberts, M.S.; Haynes, M.P. (1994). "Physical Parameters along the Hubble Sequence". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics . 32 (1): 115–152. Bibcode:1994ARA&A..32..115R. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.32.090194.000555.
  27. ↑ "Citizen scientists re-tune Hubble's galaxy classification". EurekAlert! (Press release). Royal Astronomical Society. 11 June 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2019.
  28. ↑ Masters, Karen L.; et al. (30 April 2019). "Galaxy Zoo: Unwinding the winding problem – observations of spiral bulge prominence and arm pitch angles suggest local spiral galaxies are winding". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 487 (2): 1808–1820. arXiv: 1904.11436 . Bibcode:2019MNRAS.487.1808M. doi: 10.1093/mnras/stz1153 . Retrieved 12 June 2019.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.