Human placentophagy

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Dried human placenta as medicine - Ziheche (Zi He Che ) Ziheche.jpg
Dried human placenta as medicine - Ziheche (紫河车)

Human placentophagy, or consumption of the placenta, is defined as "the ingestion of a human placenta postpartum, at any time, by any person, either in raw or altered (e.g., cooked, dried, steeped in liquid) form". [1] Placentophagy can be divided into two categories, maternal placentophagy and non-maternal placentophagy.

Contents

While there are several anecdotes of different cultures practicing placentophagy in varying contexts, maternal placentophagy started in the US in the 1970s, with little to no evidence of its practice in any traditional or historic culture. [2] Midwives and alternative-health advocates in the U.S. are the primary groups encouraging post-partum maternal placentophagy. [1]

Maternal placentophagy has a small following in Western cultures, [3] fostered by celebrities like January Jones. [4] The placenta has high protein, rich iron and nutrient content, but there is inconclusive scientific evidence about any health benefit to its consumption. [5] The risks of human placentophagy are also still unclear, [6] but there has been one confirmed case of an infant needing hospitalization due to a group B strep blood infection tied to their mother's consumption of placenta capsules. [7]

Maternal placentophagy

Maternal placentophagy is defined as "a mother’s ingestion of her own placenta postpartum, in any form, at any time". [1] Of the more than 4000 species of placental mammals, most, including herbivores, regularly engage in maternal placentophagy, thought to be an instinct to hide any trace of childbirth from predators in the wild. The exceptions to placentophagy include mainly humans, pinnipeds, Sirenia cetaceans, Pterissodactyls, and camelids. [1]

Non-maternal placentophagy

Non-maternal placentophagy is defined as "the ingestion of the placenta by any person other than the mother, at any time". [1] Such instances of placentophagy have been attributed to the following: a shift toward carnivorousness at parturition, specific hunger, and general hunger. With most Eutherian mammals, the placenta is consumed postpartum by the mother. Historically, humans more commonly consume the placenta of another woman under special circumstances. [1]

Historical occurrences

In a 1979 article in the Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine , William Ober evaluated the possibility that certain ancient cultures that practiced human sacrifice also practiced human placentophagy. [8] However, a 2010 survey of 179 societies found that none practices placentophagy regularly. [1] A 2007 study similarly found that placentophagy has never been described as a culturally normative practice in any historical source. [9]

Placentophagy might have occurred during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC), due to the famine experienced by the Judeans, according to scholar Jack Miles in his Pulitzer Prize-winning God: A Biography . [10]

Decline of maternal placentophagy in humans

From an evolutionary perspective, it appears that the human species must have stopped practicing maternal placentophagy at a fairly early stage, since there is no evidence that it has ever been common. One hypothesis that has been offered is that the smoke of firewood caused environmental toxins to accumulate in the placenta, leading to harmful health outcomes for prehistoric mothers who stayed close to the community hearth and ate their placentas. However, there is no direct evidence for a taboo against placentophagy in human myth. The shift away from placentophagy may have occurred over one million years before present. [11] It may have been the consequence of a more aquatic lifestyle, in agreement with the absence of placentophagy in aquatic mammals (cetacea, pinnipeds and sirenia). [12]

Traditional medicine

Human placenta has been used traditionally in Chinese medicine, though the mother is not identified as the recipient of these treatments. [1] A sixteenth-century Chinese medical text, the Compendium of Materia Medica, states in a section on medical uses of the placenta that, "when a woman in Liuqiu has a baby, the placenta is eaten", and that in Bagui, "the placenta of a boy is specially prepared and eaten by the mother’s family and relatives." [1] Another Chinese medical text, the Great Pharmacopoeia of 1596, recommends placental tissue mixed with human milk to help overcome the effects of qi exhaustion. [8] Dried, powdered placenta would be stirred into three wine-cups of milk to make a Connected Destiny Elixir. [8] The elixir would be warmed in sunlight, then taken as treatment. [8] It is not known exactly how traditional this remedy was, nor exactly how far back it dates. [8]

In Jamaica, bits of placental membranes were put into an infant's tea to prevent convulsions caused by ghosts. [8] In ancient Egypt, as well, pieces of placenta were soaked in milk and fed to the infant to test for infant mortality. [13]

The Chaga of Tanganyika place the placenta in a receptacle for two months to dry. Once dry, it is ground into flour from which a porridge is made. The porridge is served to old women of the family as a way of preserving the child's life. [8]

In Central India, women of the Kol Tribe eat placenta to aid reproductive function. It is believed that consumption of placenta by a childless woman "may dispel the influences that keep her barren". [8]

The Kurtachi of the Solomon Islands mixed placenta into the mother's supply of powdered lime for chewing with the areca nut. [8]

In the Maremma region of Italy it was at one time common to mix pieces of placenta into the food of a new mother without her knowledge, to promote a healthy flow of milk. [14] [15]

Cultural and spiritual beliefs

Beliefs behind the practices of consuming the placenta, whether in part or in whole, commonly reflect acknowledgment for the vast work of this organ for the baby in utero, serving as its 'protector' and providing critical vital functions for the baby before birth. The placenta can be seen as the Tree of Life, as a genetic 'twin' to the fetus, an angel, and reasons for ingesting the placenta may reflect spiritual beliefs as much as the pragmatic ones listed above. [16] Traditional practices to revere and honor the placenta that do not include consumption may include placenta burial, such as in Saudi Arabia. [17] Such traditions reflect human birthing practices wherein umbilical cords may not have been severed while the cord is still pulsing, avoiding blood loss and infection, and may include practices that retain the placental connection until after it has been delivered and the baby is already nursing.

Modern placentophagy

A slice of placenta, being prepared for consumption. PlacentaSlice.jpg
A slice of placenta, being prepared for consumption.

Modern practice of placentophagy is rare, as most contemporary human cultures do not promote its consumption. [1] Placentophagy did receive popular culture attention in 2012, however, when American actress January Jones credited eating her placenta as helping her get back to work on the set of Mad Men after just six weeks. [4]

Instances of placentophagy have been recorded among certain modern cultures. In the 1960s "male and female Vietnamese nurses and midwives of Chinese and Thai background consum[ed] the placentas of their young, healthy patients" for reasons unspecified, as reported by a Czechoslovakian medical officer in at the Hospital of Czechoslovak-Vietnamese Friendship in Haiphong. [1] Placentas were stripped of their membranous parts and fried with onions before being eaten. [8]

A more recent cross-cultural ethnographic study by researchers at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas surveyed 179 contemporary human societies, and identified only one culture (Chicano, or Mexican-American) that mentioned the practice of maternal placentophagy. [1] This account, centering on Chicano and Anglo midwifery in San Antonio, Texas, stated, "cooking and eating part of the placenta has…been reported by a couple of midwives. One Anglo mother ... was reported to have roasted the placenta." [1] This instance, however, may not be indicative of any larger cultural trends, as no other records of placentophagy were found in the Chicano culture. This same study also recorded three references of non-maternal placentophagy:

Placenta prepared in a stir-fry with broccoli CookbookPlacentaBroccoli.jpg
Placenta prepared in a stir-fry with broccoli

In a follow-up study, the UNLV researchers were joined by colleagues at the University of South Florida, and surveyed women who had engaged in maternal placentophagy previously. Of the 189 placentophagic women surveyed, the researchers found that 95 percent of participants had "positive" or "very positive" subjective experiences from eating their own placenta, citing beliefs of "improved mood", "increased energy", and "improved lactation". [18] [19] The authors themselves, however, state that "exceedingly little research has been conducted to assess these claims and no systematic analysis has been performed to evaluate the experiences of women who engage in this behavior." In the United States as many as 30% of women who planned community births may consume the placenta, often citing avoidance of postpartum depression as the reason. [20]

Current beliefs among placentophagists

During pregnancy, women often become iron deficient because iron is transported across the placenta to the fetus. [21] Because low levels of iron are known to negatively affect mood, researchers are exploring the possible link between iron status and PPD. [21] Placentophagy advocates claim that the placenta provides an excellent source of dietary iron, and may therefore improve maternal postpartum iron status. However, a recent randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study conducted by researchers at UNLV found that consuming a commonly recommended daily intake of encapsulated placenta (approximately 3,000 mg per day) only provides about one-quarter of the RDA for iron for lactating women. The study found no differences in maternal iron status over a three-week postpartum period between women consuming 3300 mg/day of cooked, encapsulated placenta, and study participants taking a beef "placebo". [22]

Preparation

In many areas placenta encapsulation specialists can be found to professionally prepare the placenta for consumption. Also, many online alternative health sources give instructions for preparing it personally. One common method of preparation is encapsulation. The encapsulation process can be one of two ways: steamed or raw. With the steamed encapsulation process, the placenta is gently steamed with various herbs (ginger, lemon, frankincense, myrrh, etc.), then fully dehydrated, ground into a fine powder, and put into capsules. The raw method does not involve steaming first. The placenta will be fully dehydrated, then ground and put into capsules. [23]

Controversy

Many researchers remain skeptical of whether the practice of placentophagy is of value to humans. A 2015 review found that while a minority of women in western countries perceive placentophagy as reducing the risk of postpartum depression and enhancing recovery, there is no evidence that this is the case. The same study also found inconclusive evidence that placentophagy was of any benefit to facilitating uterine contraction, resumption of normal cyclic estrogen cycle, and milk production. As well, the authors stated that the risks of placentophagy also warrant more investigation. [6]

A researcher who had previously researched why animals eat their placentas stated in 2007 that "people can believe what they want, but there's no research to substantiate claims of human benefit. The cooking process will destroy all the protein and hormones. Drying it out or freezing it would destroy other things." [24] UNLV researchers found that some essential minerals and steroid hormones remained in human placenta that was cooked and processed for encapsulation and consumption. [25] [26]

Although human placentophagy entails the consumption of human tissue by a human or humans, its status as cannibalism is debated. [27] [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placenta</span> Organ that connects the fetus to the uterine wall

The placenta is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas and waste exchange between the physically separate maternal and fetal circulations, and is an important endocrine organ, producing hormones that regulate both maternal and fetal physiology during pregnancy. The placenta connects to the fetus via the umbilical cord, and on the opposite aspect to the maternal uterus in a species-dependent manner. In humans, a thin layer of maternal decidual (endometrial) tissue comes away with the placenta when it is expelled from the uterus following birth. Placentas are a defining characteristic of placental mammals, but are also found in marsupials and some non-mammals with varying levels of development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pica (disorder)</span> Compulsive eating of non-food items

Pica is the craving or consumption of objects that are not normally intended to be consumed. It is classified as an eating disorder but can also be the result of an existing mental disorder. The ingested or craved substance may be biological, natural or manmade. The term was drawn directly from the medieval Latin word for magpie, a bird subject to much folklore regarding its opportunistic feeding behaviors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pre-eclampsia</span> Hypertension occurring during pregnancy

Pre-eclampsia is a multi-system disorder specific to pregnancy, characterized by the new onset of high blood pressure and often a significant amount of protein in the urine or by the new onset of high blood pressure along with significant end-organ damage, with or without the proteinuria. When it arises, the condition begins after 20 weeks of pregnancy. In severe cases of the disease there may be red blood cell breakdown, a low blood platelet count, impaired liver function, kidney dysfunction, swelling, shortness of breath due to fluid in the lungs, or visual disturbances. Pre-eclampsia increases the risk of undesirable as well as lethal outcomes for both the mother and the fetus including preterm labor. If left untreated, it may result in seizures at which point it is known as eclampsia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placenta praevia</span> Medical condition

Placenta praevia is when the placenta attaches inside the uterus but in a position near or over the cervical opening. Symptoms include vaginal bleeding in the second half of pregnancy. The bleeding is bright red and tends not to be associated with pain. Complications may include placenta accreta, dangerously low blood pressure, or bleeding after delivery. Complications for the baby may include fetal growth restriction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gestational Hypertension</span> Medical condition

Gestational hypertension or pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) is the development of new hypertension in a pregnant woman after 20 weeks' gestation without the presence of protein in the urine or other signs of pre-eclampsia. Gestational hypertension is defined as having a blood pressure greater than 140/90 on two occasions at least 6 hours apart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placentophagy</span> Act of mammals eating the placenta of their young after childbirth

Placentophagy, also known as placentophagia, is the act of consuming part or all of the afterbirth following parturition in mammals. Parturition involves the delivery of the neonate, as well as the placenta and fetal membranes. The placenta is a critical organ that develops in the maternal uterus during pregnancy to support the fetus. It connects to the fetus via the umbilical cord in order to allow nutrient transport, waste excretion and gas exchange between mother and fetus. The morphological features of the placenta differ among species, but the function is universal. The behaviour is characteristic to the mother of the majority of placental mammals. Significant documentation has been provided on placentophagy in a range of animals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lotus birth</span> Birth method

Lotus birth is the practice of leaving the umbilical cord uncut after childbirth so that the baby is left attached to the placenta until the cord naturally separates at the umbilicus. This usually occurs within 3–10 days after birth. The practice is performed mainly for spiritual purposes, including for the perceived spiritual connection between the placenta and the newborn.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placental abruption</span> Medical condition

Placental abruption is when the placenta separates early from the uterus, in other words separates before childbirth. It occurs most commonly around 25 weeks of pregnancy. Symptoms may include vaginal bleeding, lower abdominal pain, and dangerously low blood pressure. Complications for the mother can include disseminated intravascular coagulopathy and kidney failure. Complications for the baby can include fetal distress, low birthweight, preterm delivery, and stillbirth.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Complications of pregnancy</span> Medical condition

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to, or arise during pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. While some complications improve or are fully resolved after pregnancy, some may lead to lasting effects, morbidity, or in the most severe cases, maternal or fetal mortality.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nutrition and pregnancy</span> Nutrient intake and dietary planning undertaken before, during and after pregnancy

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy. Nutrition of the fetus begins at conception. For this reason, the nutrition of the mother is important from before conception as well as throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding. An ever-increasing number of studies have shown that the nutrition of the mother will have an effect on the child, up to and including the risk for cancer, cardiovascular disease, hypertension and diabetes throughout life.

Autocannibalism, also known as self-cannibalism and autosarcophagy, is the practice of eating parts of one's own body. Generally, only the consumption of flesh by an individual of the same species is considered cannibalism. In line with this usage, self-cannibalism means the consumption of flesh from one's own body. While some texts use this strict definition, others use the term autocannibalism in a wider sense that includes the consumption of hair or nails from one's own body.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Intrauterine hypoxia</span> Medical condition when the fetus is deprived of sufficient oxygen

Intrauterine hypoxia occurs when the fetus is deprived of an adequate supply of oxygen. It may be due to a variety of reasons such as prolapse or occlusion of the umbilical cord, placental infarction, maternal diabetes and maternal smoking. Intrauterine growth restriction may cause or be the result of hypoxia. Intrauterine hypoxia can cause cellular damage that occurs within the central nervous system. This results in an increased mortality rate, including an increased risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Oxygen deprivation in the fetus and neonate have been implicated as either a primary or as a contributing risk factor in numerous neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders such as epilepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, eating disorders and cerebral palsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placenta accreta spectrum</span> Medical condition

Placenta accreta occurs when all or part of the placenta attaches abnormally to the myometrium. Three grades of abnormal placental attachment are defined according to the depth of attachment and invasion into the muscular layers of the uterus:

  1. Accreta – chorionic villi attached to the myometrium, rather than being restricted within the decidua basalis.
  2. Increta – chorionic villi invaded into the myometrium.
  3. Percreta – chorionic villi invaded through the perimetrium.
<span class="mw-page-title-main">Uterine atony</span> Loss of tone in the uterine musculature

Uterine atony is the failure of the uterus to contract adequately following delivery. Contraction of the uterine muscles during labor compresses the blood vessels and slows flow, which helps prevent hemorrhage and facilitates coagulation. Therefore, a lack of uterine muscle contraction can lead to an acute hemorrhage, as the vasculature is not being sufficiently compressed. Uterine atony is the most common cause of postpartum hemorrhage, which is an emergency and potential cause of fatality. Across the globe, postpartum hemorrhage is among the top five causes of maternal death. Recognition of the warning signs of uterine atony in the setting of extensive postpartum bleeding should initiate interventions aimed at regaining stable uterine contraction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Postpartum bleeding</span> Loss of blood following childbirth

Postpartum bleeding or postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is often defined as the loss of more than 500 ml or 1,000 ml of blood following childbirth. Some have added the requirement that there also be signs or symptoms of low blood volume for the condition to exist. Signs and symptoms may initially include: an increased heart rate, feeling faint upon standing, and an increased breathing rate. As more blood is lost, the patient may feel cold, blood pressure may drop, and they may become restless or unconscious. In severe cases circulatory collapse, disseminated intravascular coagulation and death can occur. The condition can occur up to twelve weeks following delivery in the secondary form. The most common cause is poor contraction of the uterus following childbirth. Not all of the placenta being delivered, a tear of the uterus, or poor blood clotting are other possible causes. It occurs more commonly in those who already have a low amount of red blood, are Asian, have a larger fetus or more than one fetus, are obese or are older than 40 years of age. It also occurs more commonly following caesarean sections, those in whom medications are used to start labor, those requiring the use of a vacuum or forceps, and those who have an episiotomy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Placental expulsion</span> Ejection of the placenta from the uterus after childbirth

Placental expulsion occurs when the placenta comes out of the birth canal after childbirth. The time between the expulsion of the baby and the expulsion of the placenta is called the third stage of labor.

Thyroid disease in pregnancy can affect the health of the mother as well as the child before and after delivery. Thyroid disorders are prevalent in women of child-bearing age and for this reason commonly present as a pre-existing disease in pregnancy, or after childbirth. Uncorrected thyroid dysfunction in pregnancy has adverse effects on fetal and maternal well-being. The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child. Due to an increase in thyroxine binding globulin, an increase in placental type 3 deioidinase and the placental transfer of maternal thyroxine to the fetus, the demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy. The necessary increase in thyroid hormone production is facilitated by high human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) concentrations, which bind the TSH receptor and stimulate the maternal thyroid to increase maternal thyroid hormone concentrations by roughly 50%. If the necessary increase in thyroid function cannot be met, this may cause a previously unnoticed (mild) thyroid disorder to worsen and become evident as gestational thyroid disease. Currently, there is not enough evidence to suggest that screening for thyroid dysfunction is beneficial, especially since treatment thyroid hormone supplementation may come with a risk of overtreatment. After women give birth, about 5% develop postpartum thyroiditis which can occur up to nine months afterwards. This is characterized by a short period of hyperthyroidism followed by a period of hypothyroidism; 20–40% remain permanently hypothyroid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cannabis in pregnancy</span> Effects of cannabis consumption during pregnancy

Cannabis consumption in pregnancy is an important public health issue. Research has found possible or likely associations between cannabis use and a risk of adverse outcomes in respect of cognitive development, mental health, physical health, and lactation.

Maternal fetal stress transfer is a physiological phenomenon in which psychosocial stress experienced by a mother during her pregnancy can be transferred to the fetus. Psychosocial stress describes the brain's physiological response to perceived social threat. Because of a link in blood supply between a mother and fetus, it has been found that stress can leave lasting effects on a developing fetus, even before a child is born. According to recent studies, these effects are mainly the result of two particular stress biomarkers circulating in the maternal blood supply: cortisol and catecholamines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical cannibalism</span> Consumption of parts of the human body to treat or prevent diseases

Medical or medicinal cannibalism is the consumption of parts of the human body, dead or alive, to treat or prevent diseases. The medical trade and pharmacological use of human body parts and fluids often arose from the belief that because the human body is able to heal itself, it can also help heal another human body. Much of medical cannibalism applied the principles of sympathetic magic, for example that powdered blood helps bleeding, human fat helps bruising, and powdered skulls help with migraines or dizziness. Medical cannibalism has been documented especially for Europe and China.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Young, Sharon; Benyshek, Daniel (2010). "In Search of Human Placentophagy: A Cross-Cultural Survey of Human Placenta Consumption, Disposal Practices, and Cultural Beliefs". Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 49 (6): 467–84. doi:10.1080/03670244.2010.524106. PMID   21888574. S2CID   10152016.
  2. ↑ Young, Sharon M. (2010). "In Search of Human Placentophagy: A Cross-Cultural Survey of Human Placenta Consumption, Disposal Practices, and Cultural Beliefs" (PDF). Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 49 (6): 467–484. doi:10.1080/03670244.2010.524106. PMID   21888574. S2CID   10152016.
  3. ↑ Beacock, Michelle (2012-07-01). "Does eating placenta offer postpartum health benefits?". British Journal of Midwifery. 20 (7): 464–469. doi:10.12968/bjom.2012.20.7.464. ISSN   0969-4900. S2CID   73326778.
  4. 1 2 "January Jones Eats Her Own Placenta". ABC News. Retrieved 2015-11-08.
  5. ↑ Pratt, J.P.; Roderuck, Charlotte; Coryell, Margaret; Macy, Icie G. (1946-11-01). "Composition of the human placenta: III Vitamin content". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 52 (5): 783–787. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(46)90185-8. ISSN   0002-9378. PMID   20273858.
  6. 1 2 Coyle, CW; Hulse, KE; Wisner, KL; Driscoll, KE; Clark, CT (October 2015). "Placentophagy: therapeutic miracle or myth?". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 18 (5): 673–80. doi:10.1007/s00737-015-0538-8. PMC   4580132 . PMID   26043976.
  7. ↑ Buser, Genevieve; et, al (June 30, 2017). "Notes from the Field: Late-Onset Infant Group B Streptococcus Infection Associated with Maternal Consumption of Capsules Containing Dehydrated Placenta — Oregon, 2016". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 66 (25): 677–678. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6625a4. PMC   5687501 . PMID   28662016. S2CID   33523113.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ober, William B. (1979). "Notes on Placentophagy". Journal of Urban Health . 55 (6): 591–99. PMC   1807646 . PMID   111747.
  9. ↑ Menges, Maria (2007). "Evolutionsbiologische Aspekte der Plazentophagie Evolutional and biological aspects of placentophagia". Anthropologischer Anzeiger. 65 (1): 97–108. doi:10.1127/anthranz/65/2007/97. ISSN   0003-5548. JSTOR   29542795.
  10. ↑ Miles, Jack (2011). God: A Biography. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 146. ISBN   9780307789136. The sickening image of a woman fighting with her husband and children over who will eat her afterbirth is just the kind of unimaginable detail that only the actual experience can provide a writer.
  11. ↑ Young, Sharon M.; Benyshek, Daniel C.; Lienard, Pierre (May 2012). "The Conspicuous Absence of Placenta Consumption in Human Postpartum Females: The Fire Hypothesis". Ecology of Food and Nutrition. 51 (3): 198–217. doi:10.1080/03670244.2012.661349. PMID   22632060. S2CID   1279726.
  12. ↑ Vaneechoutte, M. "Was Man More Aquatic in the Past?". Bentham Publishers.
  13. ↑ Das Candeias Sales, José (2006). "Amamentar no Egipto antigo: do prazer na relação materno-infantil à ideologia". Estudos Orientais. 9: 80.
  14. ↑ Bellucci, Giuseppe (1910). "La placenta nelle tradizioni italiane e nell'etnografia". Archivio per l'Antropologia e la Etnologia. 15 (3–4).
  15. ↑ Ploss, H., Bartels, M. & Bartels, P. (1927): Das Weib in der Natur- und Völkerkunde, Bd. 2; hrsg. von F. v. Reitzenstein. - Neufeld & Henius Verlag, Berlin, S. 844
  16. ↑ Lim, Robin (2015-04-08). Placenta : the forgotten chakra. Akiyama, Miyuki (Revised ed.). Bali, Indonesia: 1st World Publishing. pp. 122, 128. ISBN   978-0976290773. OCLC   951498666.
  17. ↑ "Horizon: the Nine Months That Made You (BBC 2)". newstatesman.com. Retrieved 2018-04-21.
  18. ↑ Bawany, Afsha (February 27, 2013). "Steamed, Dehydrated or Raw: Placentas May Help Moms' Post-Partum Health. UNLV anthropology survey examines why women consume their placentas after childbirth". UNLV News Center. Retrieved March 25, 2013.
  19. ↑ J. Selender; A. Cantor; S. Young; D. Benyshek. "Human Maternal Placentophagy: A Survey of Self-Reported Motivations and Experiences Associated with Placenta Consumption" (PDF). Ecology of Food and Nutrition . Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-16. Retrieved March 25, 2013.
  20. ↑ Benyshek, Daniel C.; Cheyney, Melissa; Brown, Jennifer; Bovbjerg, Marit L. (December 2018). "Placentophagy among women planning community births in the United States: Frequency, rationale, and associated neonatal outcomes". Birth. 45 (4). Berkeley, CA: 459–468. doi:10.1111/birt.12354. ISSN   1523-536X. PMID   29722066. S2CID   21700609.
  21. 1 2 Marraccini, Marisa E.; Gorman, Kathleen S. (2015). "Exploring Placentophagy in Humans: Problems and Recommendations". Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health. 60 (4): 371–379. doi:10.1111/jmwh.12309. ISSN   1542-2011. PMID   26255799.
  22. ↑ Gryder, Laura (2017). "Effects of Human Maternal Placentophagy on Maternal Postpartum Iron-Status: A Randomized, Double Blind, Placebo Controlled Pilot Study". Journal of Midwifery and Women's Health. 62 (1): 68–79. doi:10.1111/jmwh.12549. PMID   27809380. S2CID   12723220.
  23. ↑ Johnson, Sophia K.; Groten, Tanja; Pastuschek, Jana; Rödel, Jürgen; Sammer, Ulrike; Markert, Udo R. (2018-07-01). "Human placentophagy: Effects of dehydration and steaming on hormones, metals and bacteria in placental tissue". Placenta. 67: 8–14. doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2018.05.006. ISSN   0143-4004. PMID   29941176. S2CID   49414283.
  24. ↑ Freiss, Steve (19 July 2007). "Ingesting the Placenta: Is It Healthy for New Moms?". USA Today . Retrieved 5 December 2011.
  25. ↑ Young, SM; Gryder, L; David, W; Teng, Y; Gerstenberger, S; Benyshek, DC (2016). "Human Placenta Processed for Encapsulation Contains Modest Concentrations of Fourteen Trace Minerals and Elements". Nutrition Research. 36 (8): 872–878. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2016.04.005. PMID   27440542. S2CID   3999282.
  26. ↑ Young; Gryder, SM LK; Zava, D; Kimball, DW; Benyshek, DC (2016). "Presence and Concentration of 17 Hormones in Human Placenta Processed for Encapsulation and Consumption". Placenta. 43: 86–89. doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2016.05.005. PMID   27324105.
  27. ↑ Hall, Harriet. Eating Placentas: Cannibalism, Recycling, or Health Food? Science-Based Medicine, March 8, 2011
  28. ↑ Watson-Smyth, Kate. Placenta chef accused of cannibalism. The Independent , 22 January 1998
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