Cannibalism, the act of eating human flesh, is a recurring theme in popular culture, especially within the horror genre, and has been featured in a range of media that includes film, television, literature, music and video games. Cannibalism has been featured in various forms of media as far back as Greek mythology. The frequency of this theme has led to cannibal films becoming a notable subgenre of horror films. The subject has been portrayed in various different ways and is occasionally normalized. The act may also be used in media as a means of survival, an accidental misfortune, or an accompaniment to murder. Examples of prominent artists who have worked with the topic of cannibalism include William Shakespeare, Voltaire, Bret Easton Ellis, and Herschell Gordon Lewis.
Many works in popular culture depict groups of people for whom cannibalism is a cultural norm.
Many horror films, known as cannibal films, have exploited the theme of cannibal tribes. This subgenre experienced a period of popularity through the work of Italian filmmakers in the 1970s and 1980s.[ citation needed ] These films commonly concern the discovery of cannibalistic tribes by documentary filmmakers or anthropologists. The first major film of this type was Umberto Lenzi's Il Paese del Sesso Selvaggio ("The Man from the Deep River", 1972). Later filmmakers followed, and the genre reached its peak in the cannibal boom of 1977 to 1981. The best known of these films was Ruggero Deodato's influential Cannibal Holocaust (1980). Considered one of history's most gruesome movies, Cannibal Holocaust was commonly believed to be a snuff film, and Deodato was brought to trial on suspicion of having killed his actors. [1] Other genre films include Ultimo mondo cannibale (1977) [2] and Cannibal Ferox (1981).
Later horror films to feature cannibal groups include The Hills Have Eyes series, with its clan of cannibalistic savages, and the cannibalistic mountain men of Wrong Turn and its sequels. The film Como Era Gostoso o Meu Francês ( How Tasty Was My Little Frenchman , 1971), by Nelson Pereira dos Santos, details the alleged cannibalistic practices of the indigenous Tupinamba warrior tribe against French and Portuguese colonizers in the 16th century.
In Tennessee Williams' play Suddenly Last Summer (which debuted 7 January 1958) and its subsequent adaptations, the fate of the deceased son of Mrs. Venable is revealed to have been death at the hands of natives who then ate his remains.
In Robert A. Heinlein's science fiction novel Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), human culture is transformed as a result of the Martians' practice of eating their dead friends as an act of great respect. In contrast, his novel Farnham's Freehold (1964) is set in a distant future where both cannibalism and slavery have become normal institutions. Here there is nothing respectful about the custom, instead human flesh is eaten as a particularly tasty dish and traded as a commodity much like any other. To produce it, children are bred on ranches and slaughtered when reaching puberty, if not already as babies. [3]
Jack Ketchum's horror novel Off Season (1980) features a clan of cannibalistic savages in rural America. Inspired by the Scottish legend of Sawney Bean, the novel was initially harshly criticized for its depictions of extreme violence.
Anne Rice's novel The Queen of the Damned (1988) references an ancient culture who practice necro-cannibalism because they consider the consumption of their loved ones' remains a more fitting funeral rite than burial or cremation.
Terry Goodkind's The Sword of Truth fantasy series (1994–2020) features the Mud People, a wild tribe which consumes the dried meat of their enemies before important events and rituals, believing it a way of gaining the enemies' wisdom. The Mud People are known to sometimes receive visions about the intentions of the victims and their people, and Richard Cypher himself receives such a vision during one of the times he has to eat human flesh in order to participate in such an event. Kahlan Amnell, aware of the custom, pretends to be a vegetarian whenever visiting the tribe.
In Rudy Rucker's novel Freeware (1997), a character named Wendy clones her own muscle cells and sells the product as Wendy Meat. As it is her own body, offered voluntarily, it is not considered unethical in the novel. [4]
The Transmetropolitan comic book series (1997–2002), by Warren Ellis and Darick Robertson, includes cultural cannibalism in its setting, where many bizarre and outlandish lifestyles are now common. Most notable is the fast-food chain "Long Pig", which serves the meat of clones who are grown without a brain and thus never considered "alive" as such.
Michael Crichton's techno-thriller novel State of Fear (2004) features scenes where the characters encounter cannibals on a remote Pacific island. [5]
Tender Is the Flesh is a 2017 Argentinian dystopian novel written by Agustina Bazterrica focusing on a society which consumes human flesh instead of animal flesh as a satire on capitalism. [6]
The Wanting Seed (1962), a dystopian novel by Anthony Burgess, depicts a future haunted by serious overpopulation. The government's attempts to curb population growth through strict laws and encouragement of homosexuality ultimately fail, leading to a period of chaos and lawlessness where people start to openly kidnap, kill, and consume others. A new government then sets up a secret system of organized mass killings and cannibalism to stop the population explosion.
Cannibalism is a topic of two of the six interwoven stories in David Mitchell's novel Cloud Atlas (2004), which was also turned into a movie (2012). The first story, "The Pacific Journal of Adam Ewing", mentions a historical attack of a group of Māori on the Moriori living on the Chatham Islands, where the story begins. The fifth story, "An Orison of Sonmi~451", is set in the future and describes how "genetic clones are specifically bred to be a working underclass [and] exploited not only for their labor but for the nutritious protein that their physical bodies represent" – once they are no longer considered useful for working, they are turned into fast food for the ruling class. [7] By making cannibalism a feature of the future as well as the past, Mitchell "raises questions about the myths of progress and linear time that underlie Western thought." [8]
In Mo Yan's satirical novel The Republic of Wine (1992), male infants, called "meat children" or "meat boys", are slaughtered around the age of two and served whole, "boiled, steamed, or braised", as gourmet dishes in a fictional Chinese province called Liquorland. The book has been read as criticizing the increasing disparities in wealth and status in Chinese society, where the "pleasure and desire for delicacies" of the wealthy matter more than the lives of the poor, until "the inferior in social rank becomes food" in the novel's satirical exaggeration. [9]
The historical novel Kāwai: For Such a Time as This by the historian Monty Soutar is set in New Zealand before and during the first contacts between Europeans and Māori. Inspired by Māori oral history, it treats cannibalism as a normal, if not frequent part of life. Enemies are eaten "as a final and irreversible insult to the defeated" [10] [11] and occasionally slaves (pononga) are killed for feasts, where their flesh is preferred to that of animals. [12]
Aboleths in the Forgotten Realms setting of the Dungeons & Dragons role-playing game consume their parents on birth, and in so doing receive their parents' memories.
The Fallout series of video games, set in a post-apocalyptic America, has recurring themes of cannibalism. The most commonly seen ones are the Raiders, clans of savage killers living in the wasteland who habitually eat their victims flesh, which can be gained as an item called Strange Meat. Fallout 3 also has the community of Andale, a two-family clan emulating the faux-1950's culture of pre-war society, while simultaneously practising both inbreeding and cannibalism, similar to the notorious Sawney Bean legend. Fallout: New Vegas has another notable example in the White Glove Society, an upper class aristocratic group based out of the luxurious Ultra-Luxe casino in Las Vegas, who are in reality the descendants of a cannibal tribe that once inhabited the ruins of Vegas before it was restored by Mr House. One of their chairmen is intending to return the group to its roots by serving the members human flesh without their knowledge, with the player having the choice of either helping or stopping him. From Fallout 3 and onward, the player may also become a cannibal through a perk. The perk allows the player to regain health at the expense of 'karma', the series' in-game morality meter. In addition, as most survivors abhor cannibalism, eating human flesh in-game may cause nearby NPC's to become distrustful or even hostile to the player.
The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim , features a quest in which the dragonborn (player) discovers a clan of worshipers of the daedric prince, Namira, who consume the flesh of corpses found in the catacombs underneath Markarth. Players can then choose to either partake in the cannibalism, or put an end to it. Partaking will involve the player unlocking a ring that allows them to consume any humanoid corpse they find in order to recover some health.
The Last of Us features a group of cannibalistic survivors who kidnap Ellie during a winter snowstorm.
The plot of Until Dawn heavily features cannibalism. Near the end of the game it is revealed that after Hannah and Beth fell down a ravine and were presumed dead, Hannah actually survived and had to eat her sister's flesh to survive, which awakened the wendigos the player encounters throughout the game.
Cannibalism historically has been practised as a last resort by famine sufferers, and popular culture has portrayed true stories of such acts of cannibalism.
One often retold event is the story of the survivors of the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571, [13] which was chronicled in Piers Paul Read's book Alive: The Story of the Andes Survivors (1974), in Alive (1993), the book's film adaptation, and in the documentary Stranded: I've Come from a Plane that Crashed in the Mountains (2008). The story was most recently told in the 2023 film Society of the Snow . It also inspired the American TV series Yellowjackets (2021–), in which a group of high school students (mostly members of a girls soccer team) who survive a plane crash in a remote area are driven to cannibalism. [14]
Similar stories that have provided inspiration for popular culture adaptations are the accounts of Alferd Packer and of the Donner Party (1846–47), both of which involved people who ate human flesh in order to survive snowbound entrapment in the mountains.
Several works are based on the real-life cannibal convict Alexander Pearce:
Cannibalism during famines has also been repeatedly reported throughout China's long history, [15] including during the large-scale famine that resulted from the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962). This traumatic experience has been interpreted as inspiration for Yu Hua's short story "Classical Love" (1988). [16] The story is set in Imperial China and tells how, during a severe famine, a man sells his wife and their ten-year-old daughter to a butcher who then kills them in order to sell their flesh. [17] Another woman is dismembered alive in the back room of a tavern for the benefit of the customers who are served parts of her roasted leg. [18] Oral accounts and folktales describing how "the flesh of young women and children" was sold at meat markets and inns and how naked women were "butchered for food" by innkeepers who had bought them did indeed circulate during the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879 and various earlier famines, serving as inspiration for the story. [19] [20] But while these historical accounts sometimes motivated such acts as voluntary self-sacrifices of "filial" women who gave their lives to earn money for the survival of their parents or parents-in-law, Yu Hua depicts "the inexplicable cruelty and sheer horror" of such acts without any moral palliation. [21]
Various post-apocalyptic narratives have also featured cannibalism as a means of survival. The French film Delicatessen (1991) is set in an apartment block led by a butcher who deals with the food crisis by luring new tenants to the apartment, killing them, and serving them as meat to the other residents.
In Max Brooks' post-apocalyptic zombie horror novel World War Z (2006), American survivors head north into Canada to escape the undead, and are forced to cannibalize their dead in order to survive the harsh winters.
Some of the survivors in Cormac McCarthy's novel The Road (2006) and its 2009 film adaptation practice cannibalism, as persistent and ubiquitous atmospheric ash has eliminated virtually all other sources of food. A scene in which the protagonist and his son discover a baby roasted over an open fire was edited from the film, but appears in the book and in some versions of the film's trailer. [22]
A group of cannibals appear in the graphic novel The Walking Dead by Robert Kirkman and in the TV adaptation, at Terminus. The group, generally referred to as The Hunters, turned to cannibalizing other survivors due to their inability to hunt other prey or scavenging food. It is implied that the group started out by eating their own children in their desperation to survive, defending the decision by stating that the same occurs among animals in times of famine.
In the TV series The 100 , a society of humans forced to live in a bunker to escape the effects of nuclear radiation has to resort to cannibalism for one year as their only other source of protein (a soybean crop) is killed by a fungus and takes one year to regrow. The eating of the human meat is depicted on screen. Furthermore, it is stated that in the show's history a group of humans living in space after a nuclear war has to resort to cannibalism due to an event known as "the blight."
Depictions of cannibalism sometimes involve people who are unaware of their act, being served human flesh by an often murderous host.
Some artistic and entertainment works are influenced by the morbid fascination surrounding real-life cases of cannibal murderers.
The Armin Meiwes cannibalism case in Germany inspired several feature films. Grimm Love (2007) tells of an American criminal psychology student who studies cannibal killer Oliver Hartwin for her thesis. Hartwin fulfills his dream of eating a willing victim found on the Internet, and is modelled on Meiwes, whose complaints that his personal rights were violated led to a ban on the film in Germany. [27] The store of Cannibal (2006) closely follows the original case of Meiwes and was banned in Germany for the same reason. Rosa von Praunheim's Dein Herz in Meinem Hirn (Your Heart in My Brain) and Ulli Lommel's Diary of a Cannibal (2006) also depict the case.
Many heavy metal, death metal and grindcore bands and horrorcore rappers discuss cannibalism in their songs or depict it in the cover art of their albums, because of the act's taboo nature. A number of bands and works were inspired by the Meiwes case, such as:
A number of significant works were based on the activities of Ed Gein, who served as inspiration for the characters:[ citation needed ]
A notable cannibalistic serial killer from fiction is Hannibal Lecter, a character created by author Thomas Harris. Lecter appears in the novels: Red Dragon (1981), The Silence of the Lambs (1988), Hannibal (1999) and Hannibal Rising (2006). Lecter was a background character in Red Dragon, and his cannibalism was not a plot point. Public fascination with the character led Harris to feature him in the sequel The Silence of the Lambs, where his cannibalism became a central feature of his character. The film based on the novel won several major Academy Awards, which rarely are awarded to horror films.[ citation needed ]
Two of the main protagonists of Poppy Z. Brite's horror novel Exquisite Corpse (1996) are gay serial killers. One of them, inspired by real-life Jeffrey Dahmer, has a taste for human flesh which he ultimately passes on to the other.
Works of science fiction sometimes include elements of cannibalism that serve purposes different from those already discussed.
"Diary of a Madman" is a 1918 short story written by Lu Xun, credited as the first Chinese modern short story. [32] It concerns a "madman" who begins to see "cannibalism" in his community, his family, and ultimately between the lines of Confucian text. The use of cannibalism becomes the catalyst of satire and critique of Chinese society's dependence on Confucian idealism. An effect of this idealism, to Lu Xun, was the cannibalizing of the family. [33] [34]
The American novelist Toni Morrison uses the "jungle savage" stereotype and imagery to present "polemic points about racial, sexual, and class conflicts in American, African American, and Black Atlantic culture". [35] Her novels The Bluest Eye (1970), Sula (1973), and Beloved (1987) use cannibalism in the particular context of black narratives in the white "standard".
The Bluest Eye tells the story of a young African-American girl, Pecola Breedlove, who is regarded as ugly according to the white beauty standard. As a result, she develops an inferiority complex, fuelling her desire for blue eyes and whiteness. At one point, she purchases a few pieces of candy called Mary Janes, which feature a picture of a beautiful little white girl with blue eyes, called Mary Jane. Pecola fixates on this fictional girl:
Each pale yellow wrapper has a picture on it. A picture of little Mary Jane, for whom the candy is named. Smiling white face. Blond hair in gentle disarray, blue eyes looking a her out of a world of clean comfort. The eyes are petulant, mischievous. To Pecola they are simply pretty. She eats the candy, and its sweetness is good. To eat the candy is somehow to eat the eyes, eat Mary Jane. Love Mary Jane. Be Mary Jane. [36]
Morrison uses symbolic cannibalism to represent Pecola's "entrapment in a globalized capitalist system in which intensively plantation-farmed sugar and its teeth-rotting products are signs of Third World peoples' exploitation both as workers and consumers." [37] [35]
Beloved tells the story of a formerly enslaved family whose home is haunted by a malevolent spirit. The titular character, Beloved, "had two dreams: exploding and being swallowed." Morrison again uses the cannibal trope to characterize the exploitation and inner exploration of slavery. [35]
In 2020 controversy over the racist themes of the cartoon depiction of the missionaries and cannibals problem led the AQA exam board to withdraw a text book containing the cartoon. [38]
Human cannibalism is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. A person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal. The meaning of "cannibalism" has been extended into zoology to describe animals consuming parts of individuals of the same species as food.
Wendigo is a mythological creature or evil spirit originating from Algonquian folklore. The concept of the wendigo has been widely used in literature and other works of art, such as social commentary and horror fiction.
Ravenous is a 1999 horror comedy Western cannibal film starring Guy Pearce, Robert Carlyle, Jeffrey Jones and David Arquette. The film, which is set in 1840s California, was directed by Antonia Bird and filmed in Europe. It was not a box office success and failed to recoup much of its $12 million budget. However, despite initial reception being mixed when released, it has since garnered a reputation as a cult film.
Alexander "Sawney" Bean is a legendary figure, said to have been the head of a 45-member clan in Scotland in the 16th century that murdered and cannibalised over 1,000 people in 25 years. According to the legend, Bean and his clan members were eventually caught by a search party sent by King James VI, and were executed for their heinous crimes.
Alexander Pearce was an Irish convict who was transported to the penal colony in Van Diemen's Land, Australia for seven years for theft. He escaped from prison several times, allegedly becoming a cannibal during one of the escapes. In another escape, with one companion, he allegedly killed him and ate him in pieces. He was eventually captured and was hanged in Hobart for murder, before being dissected.
Hufu was a joke product marketed as tofu designed to resemble human flesh in taste and texture. The tongue-in-cheek Hufu website was in existence from May 2005 to June 2006. The creators claimed that Milla Jovovich coined the term after hearing about the product's development while on a Eurostar train from London to Paris.
Child cannibalism or fetal cannibalism is the act of eating a child or fetus. Children who are eaten or at risk of being eaten are a recurrent topic in myths, legends, and folktales from many parts of the world. False accusations of the murder and consumption of children were made repeatedly against minorities and groups considered suspicious, especially against Jews as part of blood libel accusations.
Cannibalism in the Americas has been practiced in many places throughout much of the history of North America and South America. The modern term "cannibal" is derived from the name of the Island Caribs (Kalinago), who were encountered by Christopher Columbus in The Bahamas. Numerous cultures in the Americas were reported by European explorers and colonizers to have engaged in cannibalism. However, these claims may be unreliable since the Spanish Empire used them to justify conquest.
Exocannibalism, as opposed to endocannibalism, is the consumption of flesh from humans that do not belong to one's close social group—for example, eating one's enemies. It has been interpreted as an attempt to acquire desired qualities of the victim and as "ultimate form of humiliation and domination" of a vanquished enemy in warfare. Such practices have been documented in various cultures, including the Aztecs in Mexico and the Caribs and Tupinambá in South America.
The siege of Ma'arra occurred in late 1098 in the city of Ma'arrat Nu'man, in what is modern-day Syria, during the First Crusade. It is infamous for the claims of widespread cannibalism committed by the Crusaders.
Armin Meiwes is a German former computer repair technician who received international attention for murdering and eating a voluntary victim in 2001, whom he had found via the Internet.
Cannibal is a 2006 German direct-to-video exploitation horror film written, directed and produced by Marian Dora in his feature film debut. The film centers on a mentally disturbed individual simply known as "The Man", who has cannibalistic fantasies. He makes a deal with a suicidal man known as "The Flesh" who agrees to let The Man eat him.
Fresh Meat is a 2012 New Zealand horror comedy film about a modern-day family of Māori cannibals who are taken hostage by a gang of criminals. It stars Temuera Morrison and Kate Elliot. It is Danny Mulheron's directorial debut. The film had its world premiere at the 32nd Hawaii International Film Festival on 15 October 2012. It had its New Zealand premiere on 25 October.
The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy is an influential anthropological study of socially sanctioned "cultural" cannibalism across the world, which casts a critical perspective on the existence of such practices. It was authored by the American anthropologist William Arens of Stony Brook University, New York, and first published by Oxford University Press in 1979.
Acts of cannibalism in Africa have been reported from various parts of the continent, ranging from prehistory until the 21st century. The oldest firm evidence of archaic humans consuming each other dates to 1.45 million years ago in Kenya. Archaeological evidence for human cannibalism exists later among anatomically modern humans, but its frequency remains unknown. Later in East Africa, the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin was reputed to practise cannibalism, and acts of voluntary and forced cannibalism have been reported from the South Sudanese Civil War. While the oldest known written mention of cannibalism is from the tomb of the Egyptian king Unas, later evidence from Egypt shows it to only re-appear during occasional episodes of severe famine.
Cannibalism is depicted in literary and other imaginative works across history. Homer's Odyssey, Beowulf, Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus, Flaubert's Salammbo, Conrad's Heart of Darkness, and Melville's Moby Dick are prominent examples.
Gregg Wallace: The British Miracle Meat is a satirical documentary written by Matt Edmonds and presented by Gregg Wallace, and co-presented by Michelle Ackerley. It was first broadcast on 24 July 2023 on the British television channel, Channel 4. It depicts the development in food technology by which a British industry produces a large amount of genetically engineered human meat. It was later revealed as a mockumentary based on a satirical essay, A Modest Proposal, by Jonathan Swift in 1729 that urged poor Irish people to sell their children to the rich as food. The Guardian reported it as "one of the best hoaxes in media history", and as Barbara Ellen described, "[It was] a sociopolitical mockumentary, a straight-faced, grimly cannibalistic satire on the cost of living crisis."
Acts of cannibalism in Europe seem to have been relatively prevalent in prehistory but also occurred repeatedly in later times, often motivated by hunger, hatred, or medical concerns. Both anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals practised cannibalism to some extent in the Pleistocene, and Neanderthals may have been eaten by modern humans as the latter spread into Europe. Amongst humans in prehistoric Europe, archaeologists have uncovered many clear and indisputable sites of cannibalism, as well as numerous other finds of which cannibalism is a plausible interpretation.
Acts of cannibalism in Asia have been reported from various parts of the continent, ranging from ancient times to the 21st century. Human cannibalism is particularly well documented for China and for islands that today belong to Indonesia.
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