Egg predation

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A red-bellied black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus eating eggs of the green tree snake Dendrelaphis punctulatus Pseudechis porphyriacus eating eggs.jpg
A red-bellied black snake Pseudechis porphyriacus eating eggs of the green tree snake Dendrelaphis punctulatus

Egg predation or ovivory is a feeding strategy in many groups of animals (ovivores) in which they consume eggs. Since a fertilized egg represents a complete organism at one stage of its life cycle, eating an egg is a form of predation, the killing of another organism for food.

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Egg predation is found widely across the animal kingdom, including in fish, birds, snakes, mammals, and arthropods. Some species are specialist egg predators, but many more are generalists which take eggs when the opportunity arises.

Humans have accidentally or intentionally introduced egg predators such as rats to places that had been free of them, causing damage to native species such as ground-nesting seabirds. Predatory birds such as ravens and gulls have spread, threatening ground-nesting birds such as sage grouse and terns. Measures to control such predators include the use of poisoned bait eggs.

Definitions

An ovivore or ovivorous animal is one that eats eggs, from Latin ovum, egg, and vorare, to devour. [1] An obligate ovivore or egg predator is an animal that feeds exclusively on eggs. [2] This is different from an egg parasite, an animal such as a parasitic wasp which grows inside the egg of another insect. [3]

Ecological relationship

Egg predation is an ecological relationship in which an animal (a predator) hunts for and eats the eggs of another (prey) species. This reduces the evolutionary fitness of the parents whose eggs are preyed on. [4]

Generalist egg predators

Generalist and omnivorous predators like this fish crow, Corvus ossifragus, eat eggs among many other prey when they have the opportunity. Corvus ossifragus and egg.jpg
Generalist and omnivorous predators like this fish crow, Corvus ossifragus , eat eggs among many other prey when they have the opportunity.

Generalist predators can have a substantial effect on ground-nesting birds such as the European golden plover, Pluvialis apricaria: in Norway 78.2% of nests of this species were preyed on. Experimental removal of two nest and egg predators, red fox and carrion crow, raised the percentage of pairs that fledged young from c. 18% to c. 75%. Population increases among many generalist predators such as buzzard, badger, carrion crow, pine marten, raven, and red fox in Scotland have contributed to the decline in several ground-nesting bird species by taking eggs, young, and sitting hen (female) birds. [6]

Learnt behaviours for egg predation

Corvids such as ravens are intelligent and able to develop novel foraging behaviours. Within the 21st century, little ravens have learnt to depredate little penguin burrows to access the eggs on Phillip Island off southeastern Australia. About a quarter of the attacks were down the entrance hole (for short burrows only); the remainder were by digging a hole through the roof of the burrow. Ravens depredated 61% of monitored burrows. [7]

Egyptian vulture using a stone to break an egg too large to pick up Aasgier (48794413228) (detail).jpg
Egyptian vulture using a stone to break an egg too large to pick up

The primatologist Jane Goodall noted that some birds and mammals used tools to break eggs. Egyptian vultures both drop small eggs to break them, and throw stones at ostrich eggs which are too large to pick up. Several species of mongooses throw eggs at rocks, or pick eggs up and drop them on rocks. [8]

Specialist egg predators

Some snakes specialise in egg predation, such as the Formosa kukri snake Oligodon formosanus, [9] the marbled sea snake Aipysurus eydouxii , [10] African egg-eating snakes ( Dasypeltis spp.) [11] and the Indian egg-eating snake Elachistodon westermanni. [12] These snakes have various adaptations to their diet, such as atrophied teeth and venom glands, which are no longer needed for prey capture (though the few teeth of African egg-eating snakes are still used to help grip eggs when swallowing them). [10] [11] The marbled sea snake also has a deletion mutation in its three-finger toxin gene, reducing its venom toxicity by between 50- and 100-fold. [9] [10] In the African and Indian egg-eating snakes, there are hypapophyses (protrusions) on the vertebrae which are used to break swallowed eggs. [11] [12]

Among invertebrates, the aquatic piscicolid leech Cystobranchus virginicus is an egg predator. It may be an obligate egg-feeder, as it has not been seen feeding on an adult, but has been found in the nests of a variety of species of North American freshwater fish of the genera Campostoma and Moxostoma . [13] A species of thrips, Mirothrips arbiter, from Brazil is an obligate egg predator; it breeds in colonies of paper wasps (Polistinae); both its larvae and its adults feed on the eggs of the wasp. [14]

Strategies against egg predation

The long-tailed skink, Eutropis longicaudata, actively defends its nest against snakes. Long-tailed Skink (Mabuya longicaudata) Chang Wei Nan Xi 2.jpg
The long-tailed skink, Eutropis longicaudata , actively defends its nest against snakes.

r/K selection theory implies two broad strategies for surviving predation: to reproduce so rapidly (r-strategists) that predators are unable to eliminate the prey; or to provide sufficient care (K-strategists) for a smaller number of offspring that enough of them survive to adulthood. [16] In the case of eggs, this means that r-strategists lay large numbers of eggs, while K-strategists take care to protect a smaller number of eggs. Lacebugs of the genus Corythucha are subject to egg predation by obligate egg predators like mirid bugs, pirate bugs, and thrips, and respond to it in varying ways. C. solani mothers defend their eggs from predators, while C. marmorata buries its eggs inside leaves and distributes them in space and time. [2]

Little ringed plover at its nest; the eggs are camouflaged like the pebbles among which they are laid. Little Ringed Plover 7613.jpg
Little ringed plover at its nest; the eggs are camouflaged like the pebbles among which they are laid.

Bird nests are vulnerable to egg predation, especially for those such as eider ducks which nest on the ground. In response to the robbing of eggs from eider duck nests, half the individuals started a fresh clutch of eggs in a new nest; they always avoided the area around the robbed nest. [4] Tree-nesting birds, too, are depredated by snakes, mammals, and birds, particularly in tropical forests. In Costa Rica, the rate of nest predation on artificial nests was greatest at intermediate altitudes (between 500 and 650 metres), with a decline in predation at higher altitudes to 2,740 metres. This may explain why many bird species migrate uphill to breed. [17] Egg predation by snakes is rarely directly opposed, but the Asian long-tailed skink Eutropis longicaudata aggressively protects its eggs from the Formosa kukri snake, Oligodon formosanus . [18] [15] [19]

Bird eggs are coloured and patterned, seemingly primarily for camouflage to deceive the eyes of egg predators; for example, Eurasian curlews nest among tall grasses and have eggs that are green and spotted like their background, as well as being defended by the adults; in contrast, the eggs of little ringed plovers, laid on pebbly beaches, are pale and speckled, hard to see among small stones. [20]

Fossil record

Diagram of the fossil snake Sanajeh as found, coiled with sauropod eggs and nestlings Sanajeh diagram.jpg
Diagram of the fossil snake Sanajeh as found, coiled with sauropod eggs and nestlings

Egg predation may be an ancient feeding strategy. A fossil of the Late Cretaceous snake Sanajeh of western India, found coiled around an egg and a hatchling sauropod dinosaur, was most likely a predator of sauropod nest sites including of eggs. Sanajeh was about 3.5 metres (11 ft) in length; its skull was 95 millimetres (3.7 in) long. [21] Oviraptor was a late Cretaceous dinosaur; it was given its name, meaning "egg thief", as it was initially thought to be an egg predator; later, it was discovered to have been brooding its own eggs, and its toothless jaws have been reinterpreted as adapted to a different diet, perhaps of leaves. [22] [23] [24] [25]

Sauropod dinosaurs, some of the largest animals that have ever lived, appear surprisingly to have followed an r-selected reproductive strategy, producing a large number of hard-shelled eggs. This contrasts with the K-selected strategy in whales, which are marine mammals of comparable size. Whales produce few eggs which develop internally, receiving a high level of parental investment. A possible cause is that egg size is limited: extrapolating from the sizes of bird eggs relative to adult body weight, a 10 tonne sauropod would produce eggs weighing some 333 kilograms, far over the limit (around 10 kilograms) which an egg shell could support. If that is correct, then sauropods inevitably had to follow an r-selected strategy with many relatively small eggs, not specifically a response to egg predation. [26]

Interaction with humans

Damage to commercial fisheries

Among fish, egg predation by species such as haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) can contribute to the decline in commercially-important fish populations such as of Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus). This effect can be important in attempts to restore fisheries damaged by overfishing. [27]

Introduced and invasive species

3rd instar larva of Harmonia axyridis eating an egg of another ladybird species (probably Adalia) Intraguild predation (2127214009) (cropped).jpg
3rd instar larva of Harmonia axyridis eating an egg of another ladybird species (probably Adalia )

Invasive species frequently prey on eggs and young of native species. The harlequin ladybird Harmonia axyridis eats eggs of species including other ladybirds, such as the two-spot ladybird Adalia bipunctata . Females of the prey species laid eggs with higher amounts of defensive alkaloids when egg predation was occurring. [28]

Egg predation is an especially severe threat to colonies of ground-nesting seabirds. These have often selected offshore islands as nest sites, as the islands historically had fewer predators than the mainland. Accidental introductions of predator species have upset seabird reproduction, as the predators have a concentrated supply of food in the form of eggs on the ground or in burrows, and can increase rapidly. Offshore island populations in Australasia have been widely affected by exotic species such as rats, arriving by ship from Eurasia. Native species, such as blotched blue-tongue lizards, Tiliqua nigrolutea , and water-rats, Hydromys chrysogaster , may also have an impact on seabirds like the short-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris on islands off Tasmania, though predation rates were relatively low. Eggs were usually taken when burrows were unattended, implying that the parent birds were able to defend their eggs effectively against these predators. [29]

Control of egg predators

Where populations of concern are threatened by egg predators, conservationists may attempt to control the predators so as to allow the prey species to recover. In the case of bird predators, one approach has been to put out bait eggs treated with the slow-acting avicide DRC-1339. This has for example controlled ravens which threatened ground-nesting sage grouse, [30] and among seabirds, gulls which threatened nesting tern colonies. [31] Sea turtles breed by laying and burying their eggs on nesting beaches, so the control of egg predators at these sites may be effective in assisting the recovery of turtle populations. [32]

See also

Related Research Articles

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Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves, characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweight skeleton. Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5.5 cm (2.2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.8 m common ostrich. There are over 11,000 living species, more than half of which are passerine, or "perching" birds. Birds have wings whose development varies according to species; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which are modified forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly, although further evolution has led to the loss of flight in some birds, including ratites, penguins, and diverse endemic island species. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight. Some bird species of aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have further evolved for swimming. The study of birds is called ornithology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dinosaur</span> Archosaurian reptiles that dominated the Mesozoic Era

Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria. They first appeared during the Triassic period, between 243 and 233.23 million years ago (mya), although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is a subject of active research. They became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201.3 mya and their dominance continued throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. The fossil record shows that birds are feathered dinosaurs, having evolved from earlier theropods during the Late Jurassic epoch, and are the only dinosaur lineage known to have survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event approximately 66 mya. Dinosaurs can therefore be divided into avian dinosaurs—birds—and the extinct non-avian dinosaurs, which are all dinosaurs other than birds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Predation</span> Biological interaction

Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation and parasitoidism. It is distinct from scavenging on dead prey, though many predators also scavenge; it overlaps with herbivory, as seed predators and destructive frugivores are predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabird</span> Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tern</span> Family of seabirds

Terns are seabirds in the family Laridae, subfamily Sterninae, that have a worldwide distribution and are normally found near the sea, rivers, or wetlands. Terns are treated in eleven genera in a subgroup of the family Laridae, which also includes several genera of gulls and the skimmers (Rynchops). They are slender, lightly built birds with long, forked tails, narrow wings, long bills, and relatively short legs. Most species are pale grey above and white below with a contrasting black cap to the head, but the marsh terns, the black-bellied tern, the Inca tern, and some noddies have dark body plumage for at least part of the year. The sexes are identical in appearance, but young birds are readily distinguishable from adults. Terns have a non-breeding plumage, which usually involves a white forehead and much-reduced black cap.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Procellariidae</span> Family of seabirds which includes petrels, shearweters and prions

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Deinonychus is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur with one described species, Deinonychus antirrhopus. This species, which could grow up to 3.4 meters (11 ft) long, lived during the early Cretaceous Period, about 115–108 million years ago. Fossils have been recovered from the U.S. states of Montana, Utah, Wyoming, and Oklahoma, in rocks of the Cloverly Formation and Antlers Formation, though teeth that may belong to Deinonychus have been found much farther east in Maryland.

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<i>Oviraptor</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oviraptoridae</span> Extinct family of dinosaurs

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<i>Rajasaurus</i> Abelisaurid dinosaur genus from Late Cretaceous India

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<i>Nemegtomaia</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Nemegtomaia is a genus of oviraptorid dinosaur from what is now Mongolia that lived in the Late Cretaceous Period, about 70 million years ago. The first specimen was found in 1996, and became the basis of the new genus and species N. barsboldi in 2004. The original genus name was Nemegtia, but this was changed to Nemegtomaia in 2005, as the former name was preoccupied. The first part of the generic name refers to the Nemegt Basin, where the animal was found, and the second part means "good mother", in reference to the fact that oviraptorids are known to have brooded their eggs. The specific name honours the palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold. Two more specimens were found in 2007, one of which was found on top of a nest with eggs, but the dinosaur had received its genus name before it was found associated with eggs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ambush predator</span> Predator that sits and waits for prey to come to it

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mobbing (animal behavior)</span> Antipredator adaptation in which individuals of prey species cooperatively attack a predator

Mobbing in animals is an antipredator adaptation in which individuals of prey species cooperatively attack or harass a predator, usually to protect their offspring. A simple definition of mobbing is an assemblage of individuals around a potentially dangerous predator. This is most frequently seen in birds, though it is also known to occur in many other animals such as the meerkat and some bovines. While mobbing has evolved independently in many species, it only tends to be present in those whose young are frequently preyed upon. This behavior may complement cryptic adaptations in the offspring themselves, such as camouflage and hiding. Mobbing calls may be used to summon nearby individuals to cooperate in the attack.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird colony</span> Large congregation of birds at a particular location

A bird colony is a large congregation of individuals of one or more species of bird that nest or roost in proximity at a particular location. Many kinds of birds are known to congregate in groups of varying size; a congregation of nesting birds is called a breeding colony. Colonial nesting birds include seabirds such as auks and albatrosses; wetland species such as herons; and a few passerines such as weaverbirds, certain blackbirds, and some swallows. A group of birds congregating for rest is called a communal roost. Evidence of colonial nesting has been found in non-neornithine birds (Enantiornithes), in sediments from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Romania.

<i>Sanajeh</i> Genus of snakes

Sanajeh is a genus of late Cretaceous madtsoiid snake from western India. A fossil described in 2010 from the Lameta Formation was found coiled around an egg and an adjacent skeleton of a 50 cm (19 in) long sauropod dinosaur hatchling. This suggests that the snake preyed on hatchling sauropods at nesting sites.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands</span>

Seabirds include some of the most threatened taxa anywhere in the world. For example, of extant albatross species, 82% are listed as threatened, endangered, or critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The two leading threats to seabirds are accidental bycatch by commercial fishing operations and introduced mammals on their breeding islands. Mammals are typically brought to remote islands by humans either accidentally as stowaways on ships, or deliberately for hunting, ranching, or biological control of previously introduced species. Introduced mammals have a multitude of negative effects on seabirds including direct and indirect effects. Direct effects include predation and disruption of breeding activities, and indirect effects include habitat transformation due to overgrazing and major shifts in nutrient cycling due to a halting of nutrient subsidies from seabird excrement. There are other invasive species on islands that wreak havoc on native bird populations, but mammals are by far the most commonly introduced species to islands and the most detrimental to breeding seabirds. Despite efforts to remove introduced mammals from these remote islands, invasive mammals are still present on roughly 80% of islands worldwide.

References

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