Egyptian vulture

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Egyptian vulture
Egyptian Vulture (18208369344).jpg
Adult N. p. percnopterus in northern India
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Subfamily: Gypaetinae
Genus: Neophron
Savigny, 1809
Species:
N. percnopterus
Binomial name
Neophron percnopterus
Subspecies [2]
  • N. p. ginginianus(Latham, 1790)
  • N. p. majorensisDonázar et al., 2002
  • N. p. percnopterus(Linnaeus, 1758)
NeophronMap.svg
Distribution of the three subspecies
Synonyms

Vultur percnopterusLinnaeus, 1758

The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small Old World vulture in the monotypic genus Neophron. It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, West Asia and India. The contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on carrion but are opportunistic and will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.

Contents

The use of tools is rare in birds and apart from the use of a pebble as a hammer, Egyptian vultures also use twigs to roll up wool for use in their nest. Egyptian vultures that breed in the temperate regions migrate south in winter while tropical populations are relatively sedentary. Populations of this species declined in the 20th century and some island populations are endangered by hunting, accidental poisoning, and collision with power lines.

Taxonomy and systematics

The Egyptian vulture was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Vultur percnopterus. [3] The genus Neophron was created by Jules-César Savigny in the first natural history volume of the Description de l'Égypte' (1809). [4] The genus Neophron contains only a single extant species. A few prehistoric species from the Neogene period in North America placed in the genus Neophrontops (the name meaning "looks like Neophron") are believed to have been very similar to these vultures in lifestyle, but the genetic relationships are unclear. [5] [6] A fossil species Neophron lolis has been described from the late Miocene of Spain. [7] The genus Neophron is considered to represent the oldest branch of the vultures which consists of separated (or polyphyletic) clades. [8] Along with its nearest evolutionary relatives, the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) and the palm-nut vulture ( Gypohierax angolensis ), they are sometimes placed in a separate subfamily, the Gypaetinae. [9] [10]

Subspecies

There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations. [11] The nominate subspecies, N. p. percnopterus, with a dark grey bill, has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and north-western India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter.

N. p. ginginianus in flight, India Egyptian Vulture N.p.Ginginianus Keoladeo Ghana National Park Bharatpur Rajasthan India 18.02.2013.jpg
N. p. ginginianus in flight, India

The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies N. p. ginginianus, the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill. [12] [13] The subspecies name is derived from Gingee in southern India from where the French explorer Pierre Sonnerat described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and it was given a Latin name by John Latham in his Index Ornithologicus (1790). [14] [15]

A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, N. p. majorensis in 2002. Known locally as the guirre they are genetically more distant from N. p. percnopterus, significantly greater even than N. p. ginginianus is from N. p. percnopterus. Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and consistently larger in size. The subspecies name majorensis is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name for the island of Fuerteventura. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the "Majos", the main native Guanche tribe there. [11] [16] One study in 2010 suggested that the species established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans. [17]

Nikolai Zarudny and Härms described a subspecies, rubripersonatus, from Baluchistan in 1902. This was described as having a deeper reddish orange skin [18] on the head and a yellow-tipped dark bill. This has rarely been considered a valid subspecies but the intermediate pattern of bill colouration suggests intermixing of subspecies. [19] [13]

Etymology

The genus name is derived from Greek mythology. Timandra was the mother of Neophron. Aegypius was a friend of Neophron and about the same age. It upset Neophron to know that his mother Timandra was having a love affair with Aegypius. Seeking revenge, Neophron made advances towards Aegypius' mother, Bulis. Neophron succeeded and enticed Bulis into entering the dark chamber where his mother and Aegypius were to meet soon. Neophron then distracted his mother, tricking Aegypius into entering the chamber and sleeping with his own mother Bulis. When Bulis discovered the deception she gouged out the eyes of her son Aegypius before killing herself. Aegypius prayed for revenge and Zeus, on hearing the prayer, changed Aegypius and Neophron into vultures. [20] "Percnopterus" is derived from Greek for "black wings": "περκνός" (perknos, meaning "blue-black") and πτερόν (pteron, meaning wing). [21] [22]

Description

Adult N. percnopterus in captivity showing white plumage. Neophron percnopterus - 01.jpg
Adult N. percnopterus in captivity showing white plumage.

The adult's plumage is white, with black flight feathers in the wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil. Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white plumage. [23] [24] It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic colouration. [25] The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The neck feathers are long and form a hackle. The wings are pointed, with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped. The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles. [26] The claws are long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed at the base.

The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian ginginianus. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study, particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in rubripersonatus. [13] [27] The facial skin is yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females. [23] Females average slightly larger and are about 10–15% heavier than males. [26] Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches. [28] The adult plumage is attained only after about five years. [23]

The adult Egyptian vulture measures 47–65 centimetres (19–26 in) from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller N. p. ginginianus males are about 47–52 centimetres (19–20 in) long while females are 52–55.5 centimetres (20.5–21.9 in) long. [13] The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length. [26] Birds from Spain weigh about 1.9 kilograms (4.2 lb) while birds of the Canary Island subspecies majorensis, representing a case of island gigantism, are heavier with an average weight of 2.4 kilograms (5.3 lb). [24] The Egyptian vulture is one of the smallest true Old World vulture, the only smaller species appears to be the marginally lighter palm-nut vulture (which may be an outlier from other vultures). [29] [30] Additionally, the hooded vulture is only scarcely larger than the Egyptian species. [30]

Distribution and movements

N. p. percnopterus in flight (Israel) showing the characteristic wing and tail shape. Neophron percnopterus - Egyptian vulture.jpg
N. p. percnopterus in flight (Israel) showing the characteristic wing and tail shape.

Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the Old World with their breeding range from southern Europe to northern Africa east to western and southern Asia. They are rare vagrants in Sri Lanka. [28] They occur mainly on the dry plains and lower hills. In the Himalayas, they go up to about 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in summer. In Armenia, breeding pairs have been found up to 2,300 meters a.s.l. [31]

Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in South Africa although they bred in the Transkei region prior to 1923. [32] They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees. [28] Like many other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings over water. [33] [34] Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands of Marettimo and Pantelleria with rare stops on the island country of Malta. [35] [36] Those that migrate through the Iberian Peninsula cross into Africa over the Strait of Gibraltar while others cross further east through the Levant. [37] [38] [26] In summer, some African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been recorded in England, [39] [40] Ireland, [41] and southern Sweden. [42]

Migrating birds can sometimes cover 500 kilometres (310 mi) in a single day until they reach the southern edge of the Sahara, 3,500 to 5,500 kilometres (2,200 to 3,400 mi) from their summer home. Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in the grassland and semi-desert regions of the Sahel. [38]

Behaviour and ecology

Immature (behind) and adult (from John Gould's Birds of Europe) NeophronGould.jpg
Immature (behind) and adult (from John Gould's Birds of Europe)

The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a waddling gait. [28] They feed on a range of food, including mammal faeces (including those of humans [43] ), insects in dung, carrion, vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals. [44] When it joins other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the periphery and waits until the larger species leave. [26] Pairs may also scrounge for food from other vultures, particularly griffons. Recently fledged young will sometimes fly to other nests, competing with young vultures for food, stealing or even soliciting food from the (unrelated) adults bringing food. [45] Wild rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) form a significant part of the diet of Spanish vultures. [46] In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to occupy territories close to landfill sites. [47] Studies suggest that they feed on ungulate faeces to obtain carotenoid pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate carotenoid pigments may serve as a reliable signal of fitness. [48]

Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a carcass. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in flight. [13] They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry. [49]

Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on cliffs. [13] Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or other suitable foraging area. In Spain and Morocco, [50] summer roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost trees tended to be large dead pines. [51] [52] The number of adults at the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost during June. [53] Allopreening has been observed in Canarian Egyptian vultures between mated pairs of individuals as well as pairs of unrelated and same-sex individuals, particularly females. [45]

Breeding

Eggs showing colour variation, chromolithographs by Georg Krause Egyptian vulture krause.jpg
Eggs showing colour variation, chromolithographs by Georg Krause

The breeding season is in spring. [28] During the beginning of the breeding season, courting pairs soar high together and one or both may make steep spiralling or swooping dives. [26] The birds are monogamous and pair bonds may be maintained for more than one breeding season and the same nest sites may be reused each year. The nest is an untidy platform of twigs lined with rags and placed on a cliff ledge, [54] building, or the fork of a large tree. Old nest platforms of eagles may also be taken over. [28] [13] Nests placed on the ground are rare but have been recorded in subspecies N. p. ginginianus and N. p. majorensis. [55] [56] [57]

Extra-pair copulation with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg laying period. [58] Females may sometimes associate with two males and all three help in raising the brood. [59] The typical clutch consists of two eggs which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black. [49] The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days. [28] The second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases the likelihood that it will die of starvation. [60] In cliffs where the nests are located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to neighbouring nests to obtain food. [61] In the Spanish population, young fledge and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days. [62] Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for at least a month. [26] Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents' territory; young birds have been found nearly 500 km away from their nest site. [63] [52] One-year-old European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring. [38] [37] After migrating back to their breeding areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75 for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds. [64]

18-days-old chick. Jielbeaumadier vautour percnoptere bebe 2 mjp paris 2014.jpeg
18-days-old chick.

Tool use

Egyptian vulture using a stone to crack a large egg. Aasgier (48794413228) (detail).jpg
Egyptian vulture using a stone to crack a large egg.

The nominate population, especially in Africa, is known for its use of stones as tools. When a large egg, such as that of an ostrich or bustard, is located, the bird walks up to it with a large pebble held in its bill and tosses the pebble by swinging the neck down over the egg. The operation is repeated until the egg cracks from the blows. [65] They prefer using rounded pebbles to jagged rocks. This behaviour, although believed to have been first reported by Jane Goodall in 1966, was actually already known to Africans and was first reported by J. G. Wood in 1877. [66] [67] However, this has only been reported in Africa and has not been recorded in N. p. ginginianus. [13] Tests with both hand-reared and wild birds suggest that the behaviour is innate, not learnt by observing other birds, and elicited once they associate eggs with food and have access to pebbles. [68] Their ability to deal with ostrich eggs is utilized by brown-necked ravens which form groups that wait for the eggs to be broken before collectively mobbing the vultures and engaging in kleptoparasitism. [69] Another case of tool-use described from Bulgaria involves the use of a twig as a tool to roll up and gather strands of wool to use for lining the nest. [70]

Threats and conservation

Migratory and resident vultures at an urban garbage dump site in northwestern India Egyptian vultures.jpg
Migratory and resident vultures at an urban garbage dump site in northwestern India

Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls, [71] and red foxes. [72] Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators. [73] Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves. [74] Like all birds they serve as hosts for ectoparasitic birdlice including Aegypoecus perspicuus [75] as well as organisms that live within them such as mycoplasmas. [76]

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the Middle East, populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999. [77] In 1967–70, the area around Delhi was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10 km2. [78] [79] The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the NSAID Diclofenac, which has been known to cause death in Gyps vultures. [77]

The "sacred pair" at Thirukalukundram in 1906 EgyptianVultureThurston.jpg
The "sacred pair" at Thirukalukundram in 1906

In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities. [80] In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by accumulation of lead, [81] pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of Schistocerca gregaria locust swarms), and electrocution. [24] [82] [83] Windfarms may also pose a threat. [84] [46] Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures. [85] A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations. [86] [46] In Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animals as pets has been recorded. [31]

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998. [87] The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs. [24] [88] Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the mineralization of their bones. [89] In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity. [90]

In culture

Egyptian vulture
Egyptian Vulture
in hieroglyphs

The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of rachamah/racham which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle". [21] [91]

In Ancient Egypt, several hieroglyphs include the Egyptian vulture including what is listed as G1 in the Gardiner's sign list - U+1313F𓄿. [92] The bird was held sacred to Isis and Mut in ancient Egyptian religion. The use of the vulture as a symbol of royalty in Egyptian culture and their protection by Pharaonic law made the species common on the streets of Egypt and gave rise to the name "pharaoh's chicken". [93] [94] [95] [96] The habit of coprophagy in Egyptian vultures gives them the Spanish names of "churretero" and "moñiguero", which mean "dung-eater". [48] British sportsmen in colonial India considered them to be among the ugliest birds, and their habit of feeding on faeces was particularly despised. [97] In British India they were known as "shawks" a contraction [98] of shit-hawk. [99] A southern Indian temple at Thirukalukundram near Chengalpattu was famed for a pair of birds that reputedly visited the temple for "centuries". These birds were ceremonially fed by the temple priests and arrived before noon to feed on offerings made from rice, wheat, ghee, and sugar. Although normally punctual, the failure of the birds to turn up was attributed to the presence of "sinners" among the onlookers. [28] [100] [101] Legend has it the vultures (or "eagles") represented eight sages who were punished by Shiva, with two of them leaving in each of a series of epochs. [102] [103] [104]

Footnotes

  1. BirdLife International (2019). "Neophron percnopterus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T22695180A154895845. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T22695180A154895845.en . Retrieved 11 November 2021.
  2. Gill F, D Donsker & P Rasmussen (Eds). 2020. IOC World Bird List (v10.2). doi:10.14344/IOC.ML.10.2.
  3. Linnaeus 1758, p. 87.
  4. Savigny, Jules-César Savigny (1809). "Systeme des oiseaux de l'Egypte et de la Syrie". Description de l'Égypte. Tome 1. Vol. 1. p. 68.
  5. Feduccia 1974.
  6. Hertel 1995.
  7. Sánchez-Marco, Antonio (2022). "Two new Gypaetinae (Accipitridae, Aves) from the late Miocene of Spain". Historical Biology. 34 (8): 1534–1543. doi:10.1080/08912963.2022.2053117. S2CID   247605500.
  8. Wink, Heidrich & Fentzloff 1996.
  9. Wink 1995.
  10. Seibold & Helbig 1995.
  11. 1 2 Donázar et al. 2002b.
  12. Peters 1979, p. 304.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Rasmussen & Anderton 2005.
  14. Jardine & Selby 1826.
  15. Latham 1787, p. 7.
  16. Kretzmann et al. 2003.
  17. Agudo et al. 2010.
  18. Hartert 1920.
  19. Zarudny & Härms 1902.
  20. Grimal 1996.
  21. 1 2 Koenig 1907.
  22. Thompson 1895, p. 146.
  23. 1 2 3 Clark & Schmitt 1998.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 Donázar et al. 2002a.
  25. van Overveld, de la Riva & Donázar 2017.
  26. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001.
  27. Whistler 1922.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Ali & Ripley 1978.
  29. Zuberogoitia, I., Zabala, J., Martínez, J. A., Martínez, J. E., & Azkona, A. (2008). Effect of human activities on Egyptian vulture breeding success. Animal Conservation, 11(4), 313-320.
  30. 1 2 Dunning, John B. Jr., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN   978-1-4200-6444-5.
  31. 1 2 "Egyptian Vulture in Armenia". Armenian Bird Census Council. 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-03-28. Retrieved 2017-03-27.
  32. Mundy 1978.
  33. Yosef & Alon 1997.
  34. Spaar 1997.
  35. "'Rather rare' Egyptian vulture lands in Malta". 3 September 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
  36. Agostini et al. 2004.
  37. 1 2 García-Ripollés, López-López & Urios 2010.
  38. 1 2 3 Meyburg et al. 2004.
  39. "Capture of an Egyptian vulture". Chelmsford Chronicle. 16 October 1868. p. 3. Retrieved 15 April 2016 via British Newspaper Archive.
  40. "Isles of Scilly: Egyptian vulture seen in UK for first time in 150 years". BBC. 15 June 2021. Archived from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  41. "Egyptian vulture spotted in Ireland for the first time". BBC News. 2021-07-17. Archived from the original on 2021-07-21. Retrieved 2021-07-23.
  42. Sandgren, B. (1978). "Smutsgam Neophron percnopterus anträffad i Sverige" (PDF). Vår Fågelvärld. 37: 67–68. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-23. Retrieved 2016-04-15.
  43. Whistler 1949.
  44. Prakash & Nanjappa 1988.
  45. 1 2 van Overveld et al. 2021.
  46. 1 2 3 Margalida et al. 2012.
  47. Tauler-Ametller, H.; Hernández-Matías, A.; Pretus, J. L.L.; Real, J. (2017). "Landfills determine the distribution of an expanding breeding population of the endangered Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus". Ibis. 159 (4): 757–768. doi:10.1111/ibi.12495.
  48. 1 2 Negro et al. 2002.
  49. 1 2 Baker 1928.
  50. Amezian, M.; El Khamlichi, K. (2016). "Significant population of Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus found in Morocco". Ostrich. 87 (1): 73–76. doi:10.2989/00306525.2015.1089334. S2CID   85701482.
  51. Donázar, Ceballos & Tella 1996.
  52. 1 2 Ceballos & Donázar 1990.
  53. Margalida & Boudet 2003.
  54. Ceballos & Donázar 1989.
  55. Biddulph 1937.
  56. Paynter 1924.
  57. Gangoso 2005.
  58. Donázar, Ceballos & Tella 1994.
  59. Tella 1993.
  60. Donázar & Ceballos 1989a.
  61. Donázar & Ceballos 1990.
  62. Donázar & Ceballos 1989b.
  63. Elorriaga et al. 2009.
  64. Grande et al. 2009.
  65. van Lawick-Goodall & van Lawick 1966.
  66. Wood, J.G. (1875). Wood's Bible Animals. William Garretson & Co. p. 343.
  67. Baxter, Urban & Brown 1969.
  68. Thouless, Fanshawe & Bertram 1989.
  69. Yosef, Kabesa & Yosef 2011.
  70. Stoyanova, Stefanov & Schmutz 2010.
  71. Tella & Mañosa 1993.
  72. Donázar & Ceballos 1988.
  73. Mateo & Olea 2007.
  74. Stoyanova & Stefanov 1993.
  75. Agarwal et al. 2012.
  76. Suárez-Pérez et al. 2012.
  77. 1 2 Cuthbert et al. 2006.
  78. Galushin 2001.
  79. Galushin 1975.
  80. Liberatori & Penteriani 2001.
  81. Cortés-Avizanda, Ceballos & Donázar 2009.
  82. Hernández & Margalida 2009.
  83. García-Ripollés & López-López 2006.
  84. Carrete et al. 2009.
  85. Angelov, Hashim & Oppel 2012.
  86. Hidalgo et al. 2005.
  87. Palacios 2000.
  88. Palacios 2004.
  89. Gangoso et al. 2009a.
  90. Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009.
  91. Coultas 1876, p. 138.
  92. Quirke, S.G.J. (2017). "The writing of the Birds. Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Before and After the Founding of Alexandria". Electryone. 5 (1): 32–43.
  93. Ingerson 1923, p. 34.
  94. Thompson 1895, p. 48.
  95. Stratton-Porter 1909, p. 182.
  96. Anonymous 1854, p. 80.
  97. Dewar 1906.
  98. Partridge, Eric (2003). The Routledge Dictionary of Historical Slang. Routledge. p. 4709.
  99. Dewar, Douglas (1915). Birds of the Indian Hills. London: John Lane, The Bodley Head. p. 222.
  100. Neelakantan 1977.
  101. Siromoney 1977.
  102. Pope 1900, p. 260.
  103. Thurston 1906, p. 252.
  104. Mudaliyar, M.M. Kumarasami (1923). Tirukalukunram (Pakshi-Tirtham). The Diocesan Press. pp. 14–16.

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The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds of prey with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-sized mammals, with a number feeding on carrion and a few feeding on fruit. The Accipitridae have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found on all the world's continents and a number of oceanic island groups. Some species are migratory. The family contains 255 species which are divided into 70 genera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bearded vulture</span> Species of bird

The bearded vulture, also known as the lammergeier and ossifrage, is a very large bird of prey in the monotypic genus Gypaetus. Traditionally considered an Old World vulture, it actually forms a separate minor lineage of Accipitridae together with the Egyptian vulture, its closest living relative. It is not much more closely related to the Old World vultures proper than to, for example, hawks, and differs from the former by its feathered neck. Although dissimilar, the Egyptian and bearded vulture each have a lozenge-shaped tail—unusual among birds of prey. It is vernacularly known as Homa, a divine bird in Iranian mythology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Himalayan vulture</span> Species of bird

The Himalayan vulture or Himalayan griffon vulture is an Old World vulture native to the Himalayas and the adjoining Tibetan Plateau. It is one of the two largest Old World vultures and true raptors. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List. It is not to be confused with the Eurasian griffon vulture, which is a similar and sympatric species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-rumped vulture</span> Species of bird

The white-rumped vulture is an Old World vulture native to South and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 2000, as the population severely declined. White-rumped vultures die of kidney failure caused by diclofenac poisoning. In the 1980s, the global population was estimated at several million individuals, and it was thought to be "the most abundant large bird of prey in the world". As of 2021, the global population was estimated at less than 6,000 mature individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Palm-nut vulture</span> Species of bird

The palm-nut vulture or vulturine fish eagle, is a large bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. It is the only member of the genus Gypohierax.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hooded vulture</span> Species of bird

The hooded vulture is an Old World vulture in the order Accipitriformes, which also includes eagles, kites, buzzards and hawks. It is the only member of the genus Necrosyrtes, which is sister to the larger Gyps genus, both of which are a part of the Aegypiinae subfamily of Old World vultures. It is native to sub-Saharan Africa, where it has a widespread distribution with populations in southern, East and West Africa. It is a scruffy-looking, small vulture with dark brown plumage, a long thin bill, bare crown, face and fore-neck, and a downy nape and hind-neck. Its face is usually a light red colour. It typically scavenges on carcasses of wildlife and domestic animals. Although it remains a common species with a stable population in the lower region of Casamance, some areas of The Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau, other regions such as Dakar, Senegal, show more than 85% losses in population over the last 50 years. Threats include poisoning, hunting, loss of habitat and collisions with electricity infrastructure, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated its conservation status as "critically endangered" in their latest assessment (2022). The highest current regional density of hooded vultures is in the western region of The Gambia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-billed chough</span> Bird in the crow family from Eurasia and North Africa

The red-billed chough, Cornish chough or simply chough, is a bird in the crow family, one of only two species in the genus Pyrrhocorax. Its eight subspecies breed on mountains and coastal cliffs from the western coasts of Ireland and Britain east through southern Europe and North Africa to Central Asia, India and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black kite</span> Species of bird

The black kite is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have experienced dramatic declines or fluctuations. Current global population estimates run up to 6.7 million individuals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-winged kite</span> Raptor native to Eurasia

The black-winged kite, also known as the black-shouldered kite, is a small diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae best known for its habit of hovering over open grasslands in the manner of the much smaller kestrels. This Palearctic and Afrotropical species was sometimes combined with the Australian black-shouldered kite and the white-tailed kite of North and South America which together form a superspecies. This kite is distinctive, with long wings; white, grey and black plumage; and owl-like forward-facing eyes with red irises. The owl-like behaviour is even more pronounced in the letter-winged kite, a nocturnal relative in Australia. Although mainly seen on plains, they are sometimes seen on grassy slopes of hills in the higher elevation regions of Asia. They are not migratory, but show nomadism in response to weather and food availability. They are well adapted to utilize periodic upsurges in rodent populations and can raise multiple broods in a single year unlike most birds of prey. Populations in southern Europe have grown in response to human activities, particularly agriculture and livestock rearing. Now present in SouthWest France

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cinereous vulture</span> Species of bird

The cinereous vulture is a large raptor in the family Accipitridae and distributed through much of temperate Eurasia. It is also known as the black vulture, monk vulture and Eurasian black vulture. With a body length of 1.2 m, 3.1 m (10 ft) across the wings and a maximum weight of 14 kg (31 lb), it is the largest Old World vulture and largest member of the Accipitridae family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chough</span> Genus of birds

There are two species of passerine birds commonly called chough that constitute the genus Pyrrhocorax of the Corvidae (crow) family of birds. These are the red-billed chough, and the Alpine chough. The white-winged chough of Australia, despite its name, is not a true chough but rather a member of the family Corcoracidae and only distantly related.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rüppell's vulture</span> Species of bird

Rüppell's vulture, also called Rüppell's griffon vulture, named after Eduard Rüppell, is a large bird of prey, mainly native to the Sahel region and East Africa. The former population of 22,000 has been decreasing due to loss of habitat, incidental poisoning, and other factors. Known also as Rüppell's griffon, Rueppell's griffon, Rüppell's griffin vulture, Rueppell's vulture and other variants, it is not to be confused with a different species, the griffon vulture. Rüppell's vulture is considered to be the highest-flying bird, with confirmed evidence of a flight at an altitude of 11,300 m (37,000 ft) above sea level.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Barn owl</span> Common cosmopolitan owl species

The barn owl is the most widely distributed species of owl in the world and one of the most widespread of all species of birds, being found almost everywhere except for polar and desert regions, Asia north of the Himalayas, some islands of Indonesia, and some Pacific Islands. It is also known as the common barn owl, to distinguish it from the other species in its family, Tytonidae, which forms one of the two main lineages of living owls, the other being the typical owls (Strigidae).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bonelli's eagle</span> Large bird of prey

Bonelli's eagle is a large bird of prey. The common name of the bird commemorates the Italian ornithologist and collector Franco Andrea Bonelli. Bonelli is credited with gathering the type specimen, most likely from an exploration of Sardinia. Some antiquated texts also refer to this species as the crestless hawk-eagle. Like all eagles, Bonelli's eagle belongs to the family Accipitridae. Its feathered legs marked it as member of the Aquilinae or booted eagle subfamily. This species breeds from Southern Europe, Africa on the montane perimeter of the Sahara Desert and across the Indian Subcontinent to Indonesia. In Eurasia, this species may be found as far west as Portugal and as far east as southeastern China and Thailand. It is usually a resident breeder. Bonelli's eagle is often found in hilly or mountainous habitats, with rocky walls or crags, from sea level to 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Habitats are often open to wooded land and can occur in arid to semi-moist climate. This eagle, though it can be considered partially opportunistic, is something of a specialist predator of certain birds and mammals, especially rabbits, galliforms and pigeons. On evidence, when staple prey populations decline or are locally scarce, Bonelli's eagle switch to being an opportunistic predator of a wide variety of birds. Despite its persistence over a large range and its continued classification as a least concern species by the IUCN, Bonelli's eagle has declined precipitously in various parts of its range, including almost all of its European distribution, and may face potential local extinction. The species' declines are due to widespread habitat destruction, electrocution from electricity pylons as well as persistent persecution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape vulture</span> Species of bird

The Cape vulture, also known as Cape griffon and Kolbe's vulture, is an Old World vulture in the family Accipitridae. It is endemic to southern Africa, and lives mainly in South Africa, Lesotho, Botswana, and in some parts of northern Namibia. It nests on cliffs and lays one egg per year. In 2015, it had been classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, but was down-listed to Vulnerable in 2021 as some populations increased and have been stable since about 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish imperial eagle</span> Species of bird

The Spanish imperial eagle, also known as the Iberian imperial eagle, the Spanish eagle or Adalbert's eagle, is a species of eagle native to the Iberian Peninsula. The binomial commemorates Prince Adalbert of Bavaria. Due to its distinct "epaulettes", old literature often referred to this species as the white-shouldered eagle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Krumovitsa</span> River in Bulgaria

The Krumovitsa is a river in the eastern Rhodope Mountains of Bulgaria. The river valley is formed by the Krumovitsa River and the Djushun River together with the surrounding low mountain slopes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chimango caracara</span> Species of bird

The chimango caracara is a species of bird of prey in the family Falconidae, the falcons and caracaras. It is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay, and as a vagrant on the Falkland Islands.

A vulture restaurant is a site where carrion, decaying flesh from dead animals, is deposited in order to be consumed by vultures, and is sometimes referred to more generally as supplemental feeding or provisioning. These stations can also be referred to as vulture feeding sites, vulture feeding stations, and vulture safe zones. This supplemental feeding practice is used to provide vultures with reliable, non-contaminated food sources or to aid in monitoring schemes. Vulture restaurants have been instituted as a method of vulture conservation in Europe and Africa since the 1960's and 70's, when vulture populations began to decline. This strategy is used because often population declines are attributed to low food availability, food contamination or insufficient nutritional quality, or feeding from human areas leading to conflict. Notably, large vulture population declines in South Asia, referred to as the Asian or Indian vulture crisis, and Africa, referred to as the African vulture crisis, have brought renewed attention to the uses and impacts of vulture restaurants. Vulture restaurants are used in Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America for various conservation and management plans. They can help combat food-derived threats to vultures, such as diclofenac or lead contamination or conflict with ranchers and poachers. The first vulture restaurant was built in South Africa in 1966. Vulture restaurants operate in a number of countries, including Nepal, India, Cambodia, South Africa, Eswatini, and Spain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">African vulture crisis</span> Ecological disaster in Africa

The African vulture crisis is the name given to the ongoing population decline in several Old World vulture species across Africa. Steep population declines have been reported from many locations across the continent since the early 2000s. The causes are mainly poisoning from baited animal carcasses, and the illegal trade in vulture body parts for traditional medicine. Available data suggest that the African vulture crisis may be similar in scale to the Indian vulture crisis, but more protracted and less well documented.