New World vulture

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New World vultures
Temporal range: Paleocene – Holocene, 64.5–0  Ma
Urubu a tete rouge - Turkey Vulture.jpg
Turkey vulture
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Cathartidae
Lafresnaye, 1839
Genera

Cathartes
Coragyps
Gymnogyps
Sarcoramphus
Vultur

Turkeyvulturerange.jpg
Approximate Cathartidae range map
  Summer-only range of turkey vulture 
  At least one species present year-round
Synonyms
  • Vulturidae Illiger, 1811

Cathartidae, known commonly as New World vultures or condors, are a family of birds of prey consisting of seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in warm and temperate areas of the Americas. They are known as "New World" vultures to distinguish them from Old World vultures, with which the Cathartidae does not form a single clade despite the two being similar in appearance and behavior as a result of convergent evolution.

Contents

Like other vultures, New World vultures are scavengers, having evolved to feed off of the carcasses of dead animals without any notable ill effects. Some species of New World vulture have a good sense of smell, whereas Old World vultures find carcasses exclusively by sight. Other adaptations shared by both Old and New World vultures include a bald head, devoid of feathers to prevent rotting matter from accumulating while feeding, and an extremely disease-resistant digestive system to protect against scavenging-related germs.

Taxonomy and systematics

A pervious nostril is typical of the family VultureBeak.png
A pervious nostril is typical of the family

The family Cathartidae was introduced (as the subfamily Cathartinae) by the French ornithologist Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1839. [1] [2] The New World vultures comprise seven species in five genera, being Coragyps , Cathartes , Gymnogyps , Sarcoramphus , and Vultur . Of these, only Cathartes is not monotypic. [3] The family's scientific name, Cathartidae, comes from cathartes, Greek for "purifier". [4] Although New World vultures and Old World vultures are not very closely related, they share many resemblances because of convergent evolution. [5] Phylogenetic analyses including all Cathartidae species found two primary clades. The first consists of black vultures (Coragyps atratus) together with the three Cathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vultures (C. burrovianus), greater yellow-headed vultures (C. melambrotus), and turkey vultures (C. aura)), while the second consists of king vultures (Sarcoramphus papa), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) and Andean condors (Vultur gryphus). [6]

New World vultures were traditionally placed in a family of their own in the Falconiformes. [7] However, in the late 20th century some ornithologists argued that they are more closely related to storks on the basis of karyotype, [8] morphological, [9] and behavioral [10] data. Thus some authorities placed them in the Ciconiiformes with storks and herons; Sibley and Monroe (1990) even considered them a subfamily of the storks. This was criticized, [11] [12] and an early DNA sequence study [13] was based on erroneous data and subsequently retracted. [14] [15] [16] There was then an attempt to raise the New World vultures to the rank of an independent order, Cathartiformes, not closely associated with either the birds of prey or the storks and herons. [17]

Recent multi-locus DNA studies on the evolutionary relationships between bird groups [18] [19] indicate that New World vultures are related to the other birds of prey, excluding the Falconidae. This analysis argues New World vulture should either be a part of a new order Accipitriformes [19] or part of an order (Cathartiformes) closely related to, but distinct from, other birds of prey. [18] New World vultures are a sister group to Accipitriformes, [18] a group consisting of Accipitridae, the osprey and secretarybird. [20] Both groups are basal members of the recently recognized clade Afroaves. [18]

Cathartidae Extant species
GenusCommon and binomial namesImageRangePopulation estimateConservation status
Coragyps Le Maout, 1853 Black vulture
Coragyps atratus
 Coragyps-atratus-001.jpg South America and north to US Least concern
Cathartes Illiger, 1811 Turkey vulture
Cathartes aura
 Cathartes aura -Santa Teresa County Park, San Jose, California, USA -adult-8a.jpg Throughout the Americas to southern Canada Least concern
Lesser yellow-headed vulture
Cathartes burrovianus
 Cathartes burrovianus JJK'1.jpg South America and north to Mexico500,000-4,999,999 [21] mature individuals Least concern
Greater yellow-headed vulture
Cathartes melambrotus
 Greater Yellow-headed Vulture (Cathartes melambrotus) in flight from below.jpg Amazon Basin of tropical South America Least concern
Gymnogyps Lesson, 1842 California condor
Gymnogyps californianus
 Gymnogyps californianus -San Diego Zoo-8a.jpg California and parts of northern Arizona, formerly widespread throughout the mountain ranges of Western North America201, [22] of which approximately 93 mature individuals Critically endangered
Vultur Linnaeus, 1758 Andean condor
Vultur gryphus
 Vultur gryphus -Doue-la-Fontaine Zoo, France-8a.jpg Andes [23] Maximum estimate: 10,000 [24] Vulnerable
Sarcoramphus Duméril, 1805 King vulture
Sarcoramphus papa
 Sarcoramphus papa -National Zoo -Washington -USA-8a.jpg Southern Mexico to northern Argentina10,000-100,000 [25] Least concern

Extinct species and fossils

The fossil history of the Cathartidae is complex, and many taxa that may possibly have been New World vultures have at some stage been treated as early representatives of the family. [26] There is no unequivocal European record from the Neogene.

Fossil of the extinct Breagyps clarki Breagyps clarki.jpg
Fossil of the extinct Breagyps clarki

It is clear that the Cathartidae had a much higher diversity in the Plio-Pleistocene, rivalling the current diversity of Old World vultures and their relatives in shapes, sizes, and ecological niches. Extinct taxa include:

Description

The featherless head of the American black vulture, Coragyps atratus brasiliensis, reduces bacterial growth from eating carrion. Coragyps-atratus-002.jpg
The featherless head of the American black vulture, Coragyps atratus brasiliensis, reduces bacterial growth from eating carrion.

New World vultures are generally large, ranging in length from the lesser yellow-headed vulture at 56–61 centimeters (22–24 inches) up to the California and Andean condors, both of which can reach 120 centimeters (48 inches) in length and weigh 12 or more kilograms (26 or more pounds). Plumage is predominantly black or brown, and is sometimes marked with white. All species have featherless heads and necks. [35] In some, this skin is brightly colored, and in the king vulture it is developed into colorful wattles and outgrowths.

All New World vultures have long, broad wings and a stiff tail, suitable for soaring. [36] They are the best adapted to soaring of all land birds. [37] The feet are clawed but weak and not adapted to grasping. [38] The front toes are long with small webs at their bases. [39] No New World vulture possesses a syrinx, [40] the vocal organ of birds. Therefore, the voice is limited to infrequent grunts and hisses. [41]

The beak is slightly hooked and is relatively weak compared with those of other birds of prey. [38] This is because it is adapted to tear the weak flesh of partially rotted carrion, rather than fresh meat. [37] The nostrils are oval and set in a soft cere. [42] The nasal passage is perforate, not divided by a septum, so that when looking from the side, one can see through the beak. [43] The eyes are prominent, and, unlike those of eagles, hawks, and falcons, they are not shaded by a brow bone. [42] Members of Coragyps and Cathartes have a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid, while Gymnogyps, Vultur, and Sarcoramphus lack eyelashes altogether. [44]

New World vultures have the unusual habit of urohidrosis, or defecating on their legs to cool them evaporatively. As this behavior is also present in storks, it is one of the arguments for a close relationship between the two groups. [7]

Distribution and habitat

Andean condor skeleton (Museum of Osteology) Andean Condor skeleton.jpg
Andean condor skeleton (Museum of Osteology)

New World vultures are restricted to the western hemisphere, ranging from southern Canada to South America. [45] Most species are mainly resident, but the turkey vulture breeds in Canada and the northern US and migrates south in the northern winter. [46] New World vultures inhabit a large variety of habitats and ecosystems, ranging from deserts to tropical rainforests and at heights of sea level to mountain ranges, [45] using their highly adapted sense of smell to locate carrion. These species of birds are also occasionally seen in human settlements, perhaps emerging to feed upon the food sources provided from roadkills.[ citation needed ]

Behavior and ecology

Breeding

New World vultures and condors do not build nests, but lay eggs on bare surfaces. On average one to three eggs are laid, depending on the species. [35] Chicks are naked on hatching and later grow down. Like most birds, the parents feed the young by regurgitation. [42] The young are altricial, fledging in 2 to 3 months. [41] California Condor chicks fledge anywhere from 5-6 months, while Andean condor chicks fledge anywhere from 6-10 months. [47] [48]

Feeding

King vulture and American black vultures feeding on a carcass King vulture and black vultures feeding.jpg
King vulture and American black vultures feeding on a carcass

All living species of New World vultures and condors are scavengers. Their diet consists primarily of carrion, and they are commonly seen near carcasses. Other additions to the diet include fruit (especially rotten fruit) and garbage. The genus Cathartes locates carrion by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the bodies of decaying animals. The olfactory lobe of the brains in these species, which is responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals. [49] Other species, such as the American black vulture and the king vulture, have weak senses of smell and find food only by sight, sometimes by following Cathartes vultures and other scavengers. [40]

Tolerance to bacterial toxins in decaying meat

Vultures possess a very acidic digestive system, with their gut dominated by two species of anaerobic bacteria that help them withstand toxins present in decaying prey. [50] In a 2014 study of 50 (turkey and black) vultures, researchers analyzed the microbial community or microbiome of the facial skin and the large intestine. [51] The facial bacterial flora and the gut flora overlapped somewhat, but in general, the facial flora was much more diverse than the gut flora, which is in contrast to other vertebrates, where the gut flora is more diverse. Two anaerobic faecal bacteria groups that are pathogenic in other vertebrates stood out: Clostridia and Fusobacteriota (formerly Fusobacteria). They were especially common in the gut with Clostridia DNA sequence counts between 26% and 85% relative to total sequence counts, and Fusobacteriota between 0.2% and 54% in black vultures and 2% to 69% of all counts in turkey vultures. Unexpectedly, both anaerobic bacteria were also found on the air exposed facial skin samples, with Clostridia at 7%–40% and Fusobacteriota up to 23%. It is assumed that vultures acquire them when they insert their heads into the body cavities of rotten meat. The regularly ingested Clostridia and Fusobacteriota outcompete other bacterial groups in the gut and become predominant. Genes that encode tissue-degrading enzymes and toxins that are associated with Clostridium perfringens have been found in the vulture gut metagenome. This supports the hypothesis that vultures do benefit from the bacterial breakdown of carrion, while at the same time tolerating the bacterial toxins. [51]

Status and conservation

The California condor is critically endangered. It formerly ranged from Baja California to British Columbia, but by 1937 was restricted to California. [52] In 1987, all surviving birds were removed from the wild into a captive breeding program to ensure the species' survival. [52] In 2005, there were 127 Californian condors in the wild. As of October 31, 2009 there were 180 birds in the wild. [53] The Andean condor is vulnerable. [23] The American black vulture, turkey vulture, lesser yellow-headed vulture, and greater yellow-headed vulture are listed as species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. The king vulture is also listed as Least Concern, although there is evidence of a decline in the population. [54]

In culture

The American black vulture and the king vulture appear in a variety of Maya hieroglyphs in Mayan codices. The king vulture is commonly represented, with its glyph being easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird's beak and by the concentric circles that represent the bird's eyes. [55] It is sometimes portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head. [55] According to Mayan mythology, this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods. It is also used to represent Cozcaquauhtli, the thirteenth day of the month in the Mayan calendar. [55] Meanwhile, the American black vulture is normally connected with death or shown as a bird of prey, and its glyph is often depicted attacking humans. This species lacks the religious connections that the king vulture has. While some of the glyphs clearly show the American black vulture's open nostril and hooked beak, some are assumed to be this species because they are vulture-like, painted black, and lack the king vulture's knob. [55]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ de Lafresnaye, Frédéric (1839). "Nouvelle classification des oiseaux de proie ou rapaces". Revue Zoologique (in French). 2: 193–196 [194].
  2. ↑ Bock, Walter J. (1994). History and Nomenclature of Avian Family-Group Names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. Number 222. New York: American Museum of Natural History. pp. 112, 234. hdl:2246/830.
  3. ↑ Myers (2008)
  4. ↑ Brookes (2006)
  5. ↑ Phillips (2000)
  6. ↑ Johnson "et al." 2013
  7. 1 2 Sibley and Ahlquist (1991)
  8. ↑ de Boer (1975)
  9. ↑ Ligon (1967)
  10. ↑ König (1982)
  11. ↑ Griffiths (1994)
  12. ↑ Fain & Houde (2004)
  13. ↑ Avise (1994)
  14. ↑ Brown (2009)
  15. ↑ Cracraft et al. (2004)
  16. ↑ Gibb et al. (2007)
  17. ↑ Ericson et al. (2006)
  18. 1 2 3 4 Jarvis, E. D.; Mirarab, S.; Aberer, A. J.; Li, B.; Houde, P.; Li, C.; Ho, S. Y. W.; Faircloth, B. C.; Nabholz, B.; Howard, J. T.; Suh, A.; Weber, C. C.; Da Fonseca, R. R.; Li, J.; Zhang, F.; Li, H.; Zhou, L.; Narula, N.; Liu, L.; Ganapathy, G.; Boussau, B.; Bayzid, M. S.; Zavidovych, V.; Subramanian, S.; Gabaldon, T.; Capella-Gutierrez, S.; Huerta-Cepas, J.; Rekepalli, B.; Munch, K.; et al. (2014). "Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds" (PDF). Science. 346 (6215): 1320–1331. Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J. doi:10.1126/science.1253451. hdl:10072/67425. PMC   4405904 . PMID   25504713. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-24. Retrieved 2015-08-28.
  19. 1 2 Hackett et al. (2008)
  20. ↑ Griffiths, C. S.; Barrowclough, G. F.; Groth, J. G.; Mertz, L. A. (2007-11-06). "Phylogeny, diversity, and classification of the Accipitridae based on DNA sequences of the RAG-1 exon". Journal of Avian Biology. 38 (5): 587–602. doi:10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.03971.x.
  21. ↑ IUCN (2019-12-03). "Cathartes burrovianus: BirdLife International: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021: e.T22697630A163511443". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019-12-03. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2021-3.rlts.t22697630a163511443.en .
  22. ↑ IUCN (2020-08-28). "Gymnogyps californianus: BirdLife International: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T22697636A181151405". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020-08-28. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2020-3.rlts.t22697636a181151405.en .
  23. 1 2 BirdLife International (2020)
  24. ↑ IUCN (2020-08-10). "Vultur gryphus: BirdLife International: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T22697641A181325230". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2020-08-10. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2020-3.rlts.t22697641a181325230.en . S2CID   241274385.
  25. ↑ IUCN (2016-10-01). "Sarcoramphus papa: BirdLife International: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T22697645A93627003". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2016-10-01. doi: 10.2305/iucn.uk.2016-3.rlts.t22697645a93627003.en .
  26. ↑ Mayr (2006)
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Emslie (1988)
  28. ↑ Wetmore, A. (1927). "Fossil Birds from the Oligocene of Colorado" (PDF). Proceedings of the Colorado Museum of Natural History. 7 (2): 1–14.
  29. 1 2 3 Stucchi (2005)
  30. ↑ Suárez (2003)
  31. ↑ Alvarenga (2004).
  32. ↑ Alvarenga et al. (2008).
  33. ↑ Suarez (2004)
  34. ↑ Steverson, Valerie J.; Prothero, Donald R. (2010). "Evolutionary Patterns in Late Quaternary California Condors" (PDF). PalArch's Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology.
  35. 1 2 Zim et al. (2001)
  36. ↑ Reed (1914)
  37. 1 2 Ryser & Ryser (1985)
  38. 1 2 Krabbe (1990)
  39. ↑ Feduccia (1999)
  40. 1 2 Kemp and Newton (2003)
  41. 1 2 Howell and Webb (1995)
  42. 1 2 3 Terres (1991)
  43. ↑ Allaby (1992)
  44. ↑ Fisher (1942)
  45. 1 2 Harris (2009)
  46. ↑ Farmer (2008)
  47. ↑ "Andean Condor | The Peregrine Fund". peregrinefund.org. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  48. ↑ "Gymnogyps californianus". www.fs.fed.us. Retrieved 2020-09-29.
  49. ↑ Snyder (2006)
  50. ↑ Will Dunham (26 November 2014). "Gut check: how vultures dine on rotting flesh, and like it". Reuters. Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
  51. 1 2 Michael Roggenbuck; Ida Bærholm Schnell; Nikolaj Blom; et al. (25 November 2014). "The microbiome of New World vultures". Nature Communications. 5 (5498): 5498. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.5498R. doi: 10.1038/ncomms6498 . PMID   25423494.
  52. 1 2 BirdLife International (2009a)
  53. ↑ "San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: California Condor". The Zoological Society of San Diego's Center for Conservation and Research for Endangered Species. Retrieved 2009-12-29.
  54. ↑ BirdLife International (2001)
  55. 1 2 3 4 Tozzer (1910)

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vulture</span> Common name for a type of bird

A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture. Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and South America and consist of seven identified species, all belonging to the Cathartidae family. A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald, unfeathered head. This bare skin is thought to keep the head clean when feeding, and also plays an important role in thermoregulation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bird of prey</span> Paraphyletic group of birds

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Condor</span> Name for two species of vultures

Condor is the common name for two species of New World vultures, each in a monotypic genus. The name derives from the Quechua kuntur. They are the largest flying land birds in the Western Hemisphere.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Turkey vulture</span> Most widespread New World vulture

The turkey vulture is the most widespread of the New World vultures. One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black vulture</span> New World vulture

The black vulture, also known as the American black vulture, Mexican vulture, zopilote, urubu, or gallinazo, is a bird in the New World vulture family whose range extends from the southeastern United States to Perú, Central Chile and Uruguay in South America. Although a common and widespread species, it has a somewhat more restricted distribution than its compatriot, the turkey vulture, which breeds well into Canada and all the way south to Tierra del Fuego. It is the only extant member of the genus Coragyps, which is in the family Cathartidae. Despite the similar name and appearance, this species is unrelated to the Eurasian black vulture, an Old World vulture, of the family Accipitridae. For ease of locating animal corpses, black vultures tend to inhabit relatively open areas with scattered trees, such as chaparral, in addition to subtropical forested areas and parts of the Brazilian pantanal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Accipitriformes</span> Order of birds

The Accipitriformes are an order of birds that includes most of the diurnal birds of prey, including hawks, eagles, vultures, and kites, but not falcons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">California condor</span> Large New World vulture, North America

The California condor is a New World vulture and the largest North American land bird. It became extinct in the wild in 1987 when all remaining wild individuals were captured, but has since been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah, the coastal mountains of California, and northern Baja California in Mexico. It is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps, although four extinct members of the genus are also known. The species is listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as Critically Endangered, and similarly considered Critically Imperiled by NatureServe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Andean condor</span> Species of bird

The Andean condor is a South American New World vulture and is the only member of the genus Vultur. It is found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America. With a maximum wingspan of 3.3 m and weight of 15 kg (33 lb), the Andean condor is one of the largest flying birds in the world, and is generally considered to be the largest bird of prey in the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">King vulture</span> Large bird found in Central and South America

The king vulture is a large bird found in Central and South America. It is a member of the New World vulture family Cathartidae. This vulture lives predominantly in tropical lowland forests stretching from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. It is the only surviving member of the genus Sarcoramphus, although fossil members are known.

<i>Gyps</i> Genus of birds

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<i>Gymnogyps</i> Genus of birds

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<i>Cathartes</i> Genus of birds

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser yellow-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The lesser yellow-headed vulture also known as the savannah vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the greater yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in Mexico, Central America, and South America in seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, swamps, and heavily degraded former forest. It is a large bird, with a wingspan of 150–165 cm (59–65 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, are pale orange with red or blue areas. It lacks a syrinx, so therefore its vocalizations are limited to grunts or low hisses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Greater yellow-headed vulture</span> Species of bird

The greater yellow-headed vulture, also known as the forest vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the lesser yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in South America in tropical moist lowland forests. It is a fairly large bird, with a wingspan of 166–178 cm (65–70 in), a weight of 1.65 kilograms (3.6 lb) and a body length of 64–75 cm (25–30 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, range in color from deep yellow to pale orange. It lacks a syrinx, and its vocalizations are therefore limited to grunts or low hisses.

Paleontology or palaeontology is the study of prehistoric life forms on Earth through the examination of plant and animal fossils. This includes the study of body fossils, tracks (ichnites), burrows, cast-off parts, fossilised feces (coprolites), palynomorphs and chemical residues. Because humans have encountered fossils for millennia, paleontology has a long history both before and after becoming formalized as a science. This article records significant discoveries and events related to paleontology that occurred or were published in the year 1971.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Falconiformes</span> Order of birds

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Dryornis, also called the Argentinian vulture, is an extinct genus of cathartid, known from Argentina. The genus contains two species, D. pampeanus and D. hatcheri.

References

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