New World vultures | |
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Turkey vulture | |
Scientific classification ![]() | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Cathartiformes |
Family: | Cathartidae Lafresnaye, 1839 |
Genera | |
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Approximate Cathartidae range map Summer-only range of turkey vulture At least one species present year-round | |
Synonyms | |
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Cathartidae, known commonly as New World vultures or condors, are a family of birds of prey consisting of seven extant species in five genera. It includes five extant vultures and two extant condors found in the Americas. They are known as "New World" vultures to distinguish them from Old World vultures, with which the Cathartidae does not form a single clade despite the two being similar in appearance and behavior as a result of convergent evolution.
Like other vultures, New World vultures are scavengers, having evolved to feed off of the carcasses of dead animals without any notable ill effects. Some species of New World vulture have a good sense of smell, whereas Old World vultures find carcasses exclusively by sight. Other adaptations shared by both Old and New World vultures include a bald head, devoid of feathers to prevent rotting matter from accumulating while feeding, and an extremely disease-resistant digestive system to protect against scavenging-related germs.
The family Cathartidae was introduced (as the subfamily Cathartinae) by the French ornithologist Frédéric de Lafresnaye in 1839. [1] [2] The New World vultures comprise seven species in five genera, being Coragyps , Cathartes , Gymnogyps , Sarcoramphus , and Vultur . Of these, only Cathartes is not monotypic. [3] The family's scientific name, Cathartidae, comes from cathartes, Greek for "purifier". [4] Although New World vultures and Old World vultures are not very closely related, they share many resemblances because of convergent evolution. [5] Phylogenetic analyses including all Cathartidae species found two primary clades. The first consists of black vultures (Coragyps atratus) together with the three Cathartes species (lesser yellow-headed vultures (C. burrovianus), greater yellow-headed vultures (C. melambrotus), and turkey vultures (C. aura)), while the second consists of king vultures (Sarcoramphus papa), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) and Andean condors (Vultur gryphus). [6]
New World vultures were traditionally placed in a family of their own in the Falconiformes. [7] However, in the late 20th century some ornithologists argued that they are more closely related to storks on the basis of karyotype, [8] morphological, [9] and behavioral [10] data. Thus some authorities placed them in the Ciconiiformes with storks and herons; Sibley and Monroe (1990) even considered them a subfamily of the storks. This was criticized, [11] [12] and an early DNA sequence study [13] was based on erroneous data and subsequently retracted. [14] [15] [16] There was then an attempt to raise the New World vultures to the rank of an independent order, Cathartiformes, not closely associated with either the birds of prey or the storks and herons. [17]
Recent multi-locus DNA studies on the evolutionary relationships between bird groups [18] [19] indicate that New World vultures are related to the other birds of prey, excluding the Falconidae. This analysis argues New World vulture should either be a part of a new order Accipitriformes [19] or part of an order (Cathartiformes) closely related to, but distinct from, other birds of prey. [18] New World vultures are a sister group to Accipitriformes, [18] a group consisting of Accipitridae, the osprey and secretarybird. [20] Both groups are basal members of the recently recognized clade Afroaves. [18]
Cathartidae Extant species | |||||
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Genus | Common and binomial names | Image | Range | Population estimate | Conservation status |
Coragyps Le Maout, 1853 | Black vulture Coragyps atratus | ![]() | South America and north to US | Least concern | |
Cathartes Illiger, 1811 | Turkey vulture Cathartes aura | ![]() | Throughout the Americas to southern Canada | Least concern | |
Lesser yellow-headed vulture Cathartes burrovianus | ![]() | South America and north to Mexico | 500,000-4,999,999 [21] mature individuals | Least concern | |
Greater yellow-headed vulture Cathartes melambrotus | ![]() | Amazon Basin of tropical South America | Least concern | ||
Gymnogyps Lesson, 1842 | California condor Gymnogyps californianus | ![]() | California and parts of northern Arizona, formerly widespread throughout the mountain ranges of Western North America | 201, [22] of which approximately 93 mature individuals | Critically endangered |
Vultur Linnaeus, 1758 | Andean condor Vultur gryphus | ![]() | Andes [23] | Maximum estimate: 10,000 [24] | Vulnerable |
Sarcoramphus Duméril, 1805 | King vulture Sarcoramphus papa | ![]() | Southern Mexico to northern Argentina | 10,000-100,000 [25] | Least concern |
The fossil history of the Cathartidae is complex, and many taxa that may possibly have been New World vultures have at some stage been treated as early representatives of the family. [26] There is no unequivocal European record from the Neogene.
It is clear that the Cathartidae had a much higher diversity in the Plio-Pleistocene, rivalling the current diversity of Old World vultures and their relatives in shapes, sizes, and ecological niches. Extinct taxa include:
New World vultures are generally large, ranging in length from the lesser yellow-headed vulture at 56–61 centimeters (22–24 inches) up to the California and Andean condors, both of which can reach 120 centimeters (48 inches) in length and weigh 12 or more kilograms (26 or more pounds). Plumage is predominantly black or brown, and is sometimes marked with white. All species have featherless heads and necks. [35] In some, this skin is brightly colored, and in the king vulture it is developed into colorful wattles and outgrowths.
All New World vultures have long, broad wings and a stiff tail, suitable for soaring. [36] They are the best adapted to soaring of all land birds. [37] The feet are clawed but weak and not adapted to grasping. [38] The front toes are long with small webs at their bases. [39] No New World vulture possesses a syrinx, [40] the vocal organ of birds. Therefore, the voice is limited to infrequent grunts and hisses. [41]
The beak is slightly hooked and is relatively weak compared with those of other birds of prey. [38] This is because it is adapted to tear the weak flesh of partially rotted carrion, rather than fresh meat. [37] The nostrils are oval and set in a soft cere. [42] The nasal passage is perforate, not divided by a septum, so that when looking from the side, one can see through the beak. [43] The eyes are prominent, and, unlike those of eagles, hawks, and falcons, they are not shaded by a brow bone. [42] Members of Coragyps and Cathartes have a single incomplete row of eyelashes on the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid, while Gymnogyps, Vultur, and Sarcoramphus lack eyelashes altogether. [44]
New World vultures have the unusual habit of urohidrosis, or defecating on their legs to cool them evaporatively. As this behavior is also present in storks, it is one of the arguments for a close relationship between the two groups. [7]
New World vultures are restricted to the western hemisphere, ranging from southern Canada to South America. [45] Most species are mainly resident, but the turkey vulture breeds in Canada and the northern US and migrates south in the northern winter. [46] New World vultures inhabit a large variety of habitats and ecosystems, ranging from deserts to tropical rainforests and at heights of sea level to mountain ranges, [45] using their highly adapted sense of smell to locate carrion. These species of birds are also occasionally seen in human settlements, perhaps emerging to feed upon the food sources provided from roadkills.[ citation needed ]
New World vultures and condors do not build nests, but lay eggs on bare surfaces. On average one to three eggs are laid, depending on the species. [35] Chicks are naked on hatching and later grow down. Like most birds, the parents feed the young by regurgitation. [42] The young are altricial, fledging in 2 to 3 months. [41] California Condor chicks fledge anywhere from 5–6 months, while Andean condor chicks fledge anywhere from 6–10 months. [47] [48]
All living species of New World vultures and condors are scavengers. Their diet consists primarily of carrion, and they are commonly seen near carcasses. Other additions to the diet include fruit (especially rotten fruit) and garbage. The genus Cathartes locates carrion by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the bodies of decaying animals. The olfactory lobe of the brains in these species, which is responsible for processing smells, is particularly large compared to that of other animals. [49] Other species, such as the American black vulture and the king vulture, have weak senses of smell and find food only by sight, sometimes by following Cathartes vultures and other scavengers. [40]
Vultures possess a very acidic digestive system, with their gut dominated by two species of anaerobic bacteria that help them withstand toxins present in decaying prey. [50] In a 2014 study of 50 (turkey and black) vultures, researchers analyzed the microbial community or microbiome of the facial skin and the large intestine. [51] The facial bacterial flora and the gut flora overlapped somewhat, but in general, the facial flora was much more diverse than the gut flora, which is in contrast to other vertebrates, where the gut flora is more diverse. Two anaerobic faecal bacteria groups that are pathogenic in other vertebrates stood out: Clostridia and Fusobacteriota (formerly Fusobacteria). They were especially common in the gut with Clostridia DNA sequence counts between 26% and 85% relative to total sequence counts, and Fusobacteriota between 0.2% and 54% in black vultures and 2% to 69% of all counts in turkey vultures. Unexpectedly, both groups of anaerobic bacteria were also found on the air-exposed facial skin samples, with Clostridia at 7%–40% and Fusobacteriota up to 23%. It is assumed that vultures acquire them when they insert their heads into the body cavities of rotten meat. The regularly ingested Clostridia and Fusobacteriota outcompete other bacterial groups in the gut and become predominant. Genes that encode tissue-degrading enzymes and toxins that are associated with Clostridium perfringens have been found in the vulture gut metagenome. This supports the hypothesis that vultures do benefit from the bacterial breakdown of carrion, while at the same time tolerating the bacterial toxins. [51]
The California condor is critically endangered. It formerly ranged from Baja California to British Columbia, but by 1937 was restricted to California. [52] In 1987, all surviving birds were removed from the wild into a captive breeding program to ensure the species' survival. [52] In 2005, there were 127 Californian condors in the wild. As of October 31, 2009 there were 180 birds in the wild. [53] The Andean condor is vulnerable. [23] The American black vulture, turkey vulture, lesser yellow-headed vulture, and greater yellow-headed vulture are listed as species of Least Concern by the IUCN Red List. The king vulture is also listed as Least Concern, although there is evidence of a decline in the population. [54]
The American black vulture and the king vulture appear in a variety of Maya hieroglyphs in Mayan codices. The king vulture is commonly represented, with its glyph being easily distinguishable by the knob on the bird's beak and by the concentric circles that represent the bird's eyes. [55] It is sometimes portrayed as a god with a human body and a bird head. [55] According to Mayan mythology, this god often carried messages between humans and the other gods. It is also used to represent Cozcaquauhtli, the thirteenth day of the month in the Mayan calendar. [55] Meanwhile, the American black vulture is normally connected with death or shown as a bird of prey, and its glyph is often depicted attacking humans. This species lacks the religious connections that the king vulture has. While some of the glyphs clearly show the American black vulture's open nostril and hooked beak, some are assumed to be this species because they are vulture-like, painted black, and lack the king vulture's knob. [55]
A vulture is a bird of prey that scavenges on carrion. There are 23 extant species of vulture. Old World vultures include 16 living species native to Europe, Africa, and Asia; New World vultures are restricted to North and South America and consist of seven identified species, all belonging to the Cathartidae family. A particular characteristic of many vultures is a bald, unfeathered head. This bare skin is thought to keep the head clean when feeding, and also plays an important role in thermoregulation.
Falcons are birds of prey in the genus Falco, which includes about 40 species. Some small species of falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some that hover while hunting are called kestrels. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene.
Birds of prey or predatory birds, also known as raptors, are hypercarnivorous bird species that actively hunt and feed on other vertebrates. In addition to speed and strength, these predators have keen eyesight for detecting prey from a distance or during flight, strong feet with sharp talons for grasping or killing prey, and powerful, curved beaks for tearing off flesh. Although predatory birds primarily hunt live prey, many species also scavenge and eat carrion.
The Accipitridae is one of the three families within the order Accipitriformes, and is a family of small to large birds of prey with strongly hooked bills and variable morphology based on diet. They feed on a range of prey items from insects to medium-sized mammals, with a number feeding on carrion and a few feeding on fruit. The Accipitridae have a cosmopolitan distribution, being found on all the world's continents and a number of oceanic island groups. Some species are migratory. The family contains 255 species which are divided into 70 genera.
Condor is the common name for two species of New World vultures, each in a monotypic genus. The name derives from the Quechua kuntur. They are the largest flying land birds in the Western Hemisphere.
The turkey vulture is the most widespread of the New World vultures. One of three species in the genus Cathartes of the family Cathartidae, the turkey vulture ranges from southern Canada to the southernmost tip of South America. It inhabits a variety of open and semi-open areas, including subtropical forests, shrublands, pastures, and deserts.
The black vulture, also known as the American black vulture, Mexican vulture, zopilote, urubu, or gallinazo, is a bird in the New World vulture family whose range extends from the southeastern United States to Perú, Central Chile and Uruguay in South America. Although a common and widespread species, it has a somewhat more restricted distribution than its compatriot, the turkey vulture, which breeds well into Canada and all the way south to Tierra del Fuego. It is the only extant member of the genus Coragyps, which is in the family Cathartidae. Despite the similar name and appearance, this species is not closely related to the Eurasian black vulture, an Old World vulture, of the family Accipitridae. For ease of locating animal corpses, black vultures tend to inhabit relatively open areas with scattered trees, such as chaparral, in addition to subtropical forested areas and parts of the Brazilian pantanal.
The Accipitriformes are an order of birds that includes most of the diurnal birds of prey, including hawks, eagles, vultures, and kites, but not falcons.
The California condor is a New World vulture and the largest North American land bird. It became extinct in the wild in 1987 when all remaining wild individuals were captured, but has since been reintroduced to northern Arizona and southern Utah, the coastal mountains of California, and northern Baja California in Mexico. It is the only surviving member of the genus Gymnogyps, although four extinct members of the genus are also known. The species is listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as Critically Endangered, and similarly considered Critically Imperiled by NatureServe.
The Andean condor is a South American New World vulture and is the only member of the genus Vultur. It is found in the Andes mountains and adjacent Pacific coasts of western South America. With a maximum wingspan of 3.3 m and weight of 15 kg (33 lb), the Andean condor is one of the largest flying birds in the world, and is generally considered to be the largest bird of prey in the world.
The king vulture is a large bird found in Central and South America. It is a member of the New World vulture family Cathartidae. This vulture lives predominantly in tropical lowland forests stretching from southern Mexico to northern Argentina. It is the only surviving member of the genus Sarcoramphus, although fossil members are known.
Gyps is a genus of Old World vultures that was proposed by Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809. Its members are sometimes known as griffon vultures. Gyps vultures have a slim head, a long slender neck with downy feathers, and a ruff around the neck formed by long buoyant feathers. The crown of their big beaks is a little compressed, and their big dark nostrils are set transverse to the beak. They have six or seven wing feathers, of which the first is the shortest and the fourth the longest.
Gymnogyps is a genus of New World vultures in the family Cathartidae. There are five known species in the genus, with only one being extant, the California condor.
Teratornithidae is an extinct family of very large birds of prey that lived in North and South America from the Late Oligocene to Late Pleistocene. They include some of the largest known flying birds. It's members are known as teratorns.
The genus Cathartes includes medium-sized to large carrion-feeding birds in the New World vulture (Cathartidae) family. The three extant species currently classified in this genus occur widely in the Americas. There is one extinct species known from the Quaternary of Cuba.
The lesser yellow-headed vulture also known as the savannah vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the greater yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in Mexico, Central America, and South America in seasonally wet or flooded lowland grassland, swamps, and heavily degraded former forest. It is a large bird, with a wingspan of 150–165 cm (59–65 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, are pale orange with red or blue areas. It lacks a syrinx, so therefore its vocalizations are limited to grunts or low hisses.
The greater yellow-headed vulture, also known as the forest vulture, is a species of bird in the New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be the same species as the lesser yellow-headed vulture until they were split in 1964. It is found in South America in tropical moist lowland forests. It is a fairly large bird, with a wingspan of 166–178 cm (65–70 in), a weight of 1.65 kilograms (3.6 lb) and a body length of 64–75 cm (25–30 in). The body plumage is black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, range in color from deep yellow to pale orange. It lacks a syrinx, and its vocalizations are therefore limited to grunts or low hisses.
The order Falconiformes is represented by the extant family Falconidae and a handful of enigmatic Paleogene species. Traditionally, the other bird of prey families Cathartidae, Sagittariidae (secretarybird), Pandionidae (ospreys), Accipitridae (hawks) were classified in Falconiformes. A variety of comparative genome analyses published since 2008, however, found that falcons are part of a clade of birds called Australaves, which also includes seriemas, parrots and passerines. Within Australaves falcons are more closely related to the parrot-passerine clade than they are to the seriemas. The hawks, vultures and owls are placed in the clade Afroaves.
Pleistovultur is an extinct genus of large New World vulture from the Late Pleistocene or Early Holocene of South America. The type species P. nevesi was described based in a complete and well preserved right tibiotarsus from the Cuvieri cave deposits in Lagoa Santa region in Minas Gerais state, Brazil. It was larger than Sarcoramphus papa, but smaller than Vultur gryphus.
Dryornis, also called the Argentinian vulture, is an extinct genus of cathartid, known from Argentina. The genus contains two species, D. pampeanus and D. hatcheri.