Injury

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A crabeater seal injured by a predator Crabeater Seal Injured by Predator.JPG
A crabeater seal injured by a predator

Injury is physiological damage to the living tissue of any organism, whether in humans, in other animals, or in plants.

Contents

Injuries can be caused in many ways, including mechanically with penetration by sharp objects such as teeth or with blunt objects, by heat or cold, or by venoms and biotoxins. Injury prompts an inflammatory response in many taxa of animals; this prompts wound healing. In both plants and animals, substances are often released to help to occlude the wound, limiting loss of fluids and the entry of pathogens such as bacteria. Many organisms secrete antimicrobial chemicals which limit wound infection; in addition, animals have a variety of immune responses for the same purpose. Both plants and animals have regrowth mechanisms which may result in complete or partial healing over the injury. Cells too can repair damage to a certain degree.

Taxonomic range

Animals

A sand lizard that has shed its tail when attacked by a predator, and has started to regrow a tail from the site of the injury Zauneidechse 1469.jpg
A sand lizard that has shed its tail when attacked by a predator, and has started to regrow a tail from the site of the injury

Injury in animals is sometimes defined as mechanical damage to anatomical structure, [1] but it has a wider connotation of physical damage with any cause, including drowning, burns, and poisoning. [2] Such damage may result from attempted predation, territorial fights, falls, and abiotic factors. [2]

Injury prompts an inflammatory response in animals of many different phyla; [3] this prompts coagulation of the blood or body fluid, [4] followed by wound healing, which may be rapid, as in the cnidaria. [3] Arthropods are able to repair injuries to the cuticle that forms their exoskeleton to some extent. [5]

Animals in several phyla, including annelids, arthropods, cnidaria, molluscs, nematodes, and vertebrates are able to produce antimicrobial peptides to fight off infection following an injury. [1]

Humans

Injuries to humans elicit an elaborate response including emergency medicine, trauma surgery (illustrated), and pain management. US Navy 041117-M-0000G-004 U.S. Navy Surgeons and Hospital Corpsman, assigned to the Surgical-Shock Trauma Platoon (SSTP) at Camp Taqaddum, Iraq, operate on a Marine.jpg
Injuries to humans elicit an elaborate response including emergency medicine, trauma surgery (illustrated), and pain management.

Injury in humans has been studied extensively for its importance in medicine. Much of medical practice, including emergency medicine and pain management, is dedicated to the treatment of injuries. [6] [7] The World Health Organization has developed a classification of injuries in humans by categories including mechanism, objects/substances producing injury, place of occurrence, activity when injured and the role of human intent. [8] In addition to physical harm, injuries can cause psychological harm, including post-traumatic stress disorder. [9]

Plants

Oak tree split by lightning, an abiotic cause of injury. Oak tree struck by lightning - geograph.org.uk - 4084083.jpg
Oak tree split by lightning, an abiotic cause of injury.

In plants, injuries result from the eating of plant parts by herbivorous animals including insects and mammals, [10] from damage to tissues by plant pathogens such as bacteria and fungi, which may gain entry after herbivore damage or in other ways, [11] and from abiotic factors such as heat, [12] freezing, [13] flooding, [14] lightning, [15] and pollutants [16] such as ozone. [17] Plants respond to injury by signalling that damage has occurred, [18] by secreting materials to seal off the damaged area, [19] by producing antimicrobial chemicals, [20] [21] and in woody plants by regrowing over wounds. [22] [23] [24]

Cell injury

Cell injury is a variety of changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external as well as internal environmental changes. Amongst other causes, this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious, biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell damage can be reversible or irreversible. Depending on the extent of injury, the cellular response may be adaptive and where possible, homeostasis is restored. [25] Cell death occurs when the severity of the injury exceeds the cell's ability to repair itself. [26] Cell death is relative to both the length of exposure to a harmful stimulus and the severity of the damage caused. [25]

Types of Injury

Injuries can be categorized based on the type of harmful agent or force that impacts an organism, leading to varying forms of damage.

Physical Injuries

Physical Injuries are among the most common and occur when external mechanical forces cause damage to the body. [27] These injuries can range from superficial wounds like cuts and bruises to more severe conditions such as bone fractures and joint dislocations. Sprains and strains are also common types of physical injuries, affecting ligaments and muscles, respectively. Physical injuries often result from accidents, sports, or violent impacts, and their severity can vary widely, from mild discomfort to life-threatening trauma requiring surgical intervention.

Chemical Injuries

Chemical Injuries occur when the body comes into contact with harmful substances, such as acids, alkalis, or poisons. These injuries can cause chemical burns, irritation, or systemic toxicity, depending on the chemical and the duration of exposure. For instance, acid burns can lead to severe tissue damage and scarring, while inhaling toxic fumes may harm internal organs like the lungs. [28] Chemical injuries are often seen in industrial accidents, improper handling of household products, or deliberate poisoning and require immediate medical attention to prevent long-term damage.

Thermal Injuries

Thermal Injuries result from exposure to extreme temperatures, either heat or cold. Thermal burns, caused by contact with fire, hot surfaces, or scalding liquids, are a common form of thermal injury. On the opposite spectrum, frostbite occurs when tissues freeze due to prolonged exposure to freezing temperatures, leading to tissue damage or necrosis. [29] The severity of thermal injuries is often classified by the depth and extent of the damage, with severe cases requiring surgical interventions like grafting or even amputation.

Electrical Injuries

Electrical Injuries happen when an electrical current passes through the body, potentially causing burns, nerve damage, or even cardiac arrest. These injuries can result from accidents involving electrical appliances, power lines, or lightning strikes. [30] The extent of the damage depends on factors such as the voltage, duration of contact, and the path the current takes through the body. Electrical injuries are particularly dangerous because they often cause internal damage that is not immediately visible, making prompt medical evaluation crucial.

Radiation Injuries

Radiation Injuries are caused by exposure to various forms of radiation, including ultraviolet (UV) rays, X-rays, or ionizing radiation from nuclear sources. Sunburn is a common example of UV-induced radiation injury, while prolonged exposure to X-rays can lead to radiation burns or increase the risk of cancer. [31] Severe radiation injuries, such as those caused by nuclear accidents, can result in acute radiation syndrome, which affects multiple organ systems and can be fatal. Protective measures, like shielding and limiting exposure time, are essential to reduce the risk of these injuries.

Biological Injuries

Biological Injuries arise from interactions with living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or venomous animals. [32] Infections caused by bacterial or viral pathogens can lead to localized or systemic damage, as seen in abscesses or sepsis. Bites and stings from animals, such as snakes, spiders, or insects, can inject venom that disrupts blood clotting, damages tissues, or causes severe allergic reactions. These injuries often require specific treatments, such as antibiotics for infections or antivenoms for envenomation, to mitigate their effects.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Necrosis</span> Unprogrammed cell death caused by external cell injury

Necrosis is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. The term "necrosis" came about in the mid-19th century and is commonly attributed to German pathologist Rudolf Virchow, who is often regarded as one of the founders of modern pathology. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, or trauma which result in the unregulated digestion of cell components. In contrast, apoptosis is a naturally occurring programmed and targeted cause of cellular death. While apoptosis often provides beneficial effects to the organism, necrosis is almost always detrimental and can be fatal.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Inflammation</span> Physical effects resulting from activation of the immune system

Inflammation is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. The five cardinal signs are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and loss of function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Acute radiation syndrome</span> Health problems caused by high levels of ionizing radiation

Acute radiation syndrome (ARS), also known as radiation sickness or radiation poisoning, is a collection of health effects that are caused by being exposed to high amounts of ionizing radiation in a short period of time. Symptoms can start within an hour of exposure, and can last for several months. Early symptoms are usually nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite. In the following hours or weeks, initial symptoms may appear to improve, before the development of additional symptoms, after which either recovery or death follow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Toxicity</span> Dose dependant harmfulness of substances

Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Burn</span> Injury to flesh or skin, often caused by excessive heat

A burn is an injury to skin, or other tissues, caused by heat, cold, electricity, chemicals, friction, or ionizing radiation. Most burns are due to heat from hot liquids, solids, or fire. Burns occur mainly in the home or the workplace. In the home, risks are associated with domestic kitchens, including stoves, flames, and hot liquids. In the workplace, risks are associated with fire and chemical and electric burns. Alcoholism and smoking are other risk factors. Burns can also occur as a result of self-harm or violence between people (assault).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Healing</span> Process of the restoration of health

With physical trauma or disease suffered by an organism, healing involves the repairing of damaged tissue(s), organs and the biological system as a whole and resumption of (normal) functioning. Medicine includes the process by which the cells in the body regenerate and repair to reduce the size of a damaged or necrotic area and replace it with new living tissue. The replacement can happen in two ways: by regeneration in which the necrotic cells are replaced by new cells that form "like" tissue as was originally there; or by repair in which injured tissue is replaced with scar tissue. Most organs will heal using a mixture of both mechanisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brain injury</span> Destruction or degeneration of brain cells

Brain injury (BI) is the destruction or degeneration of brain cells. Brain injuries occur due to a wide range of internal and external factors. In general, brain damage refers to significant, undiscriminating trauma-induced damage.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wound</span> Acute injury from laceration, puncture, blunt force, or compression

A wound is any disruption of or damage to living tissue, such as skin, mucous membranes, or organs. Wounds can either be the sudden result of direct trauma, or can develop slowly over time due to underlying disease processes such as diabetes mellitus, venous/arterial insufficiency, or immunologic disease. Wounds can vary greatly in their appearance depending on wound location, injury mechanism, depth of injury, timing of onset, and wound sterility, among other factors. Treatment strategies for wounds will vary based on the classification of the wound, therefore it is essential that wounds be thoroughly evaluated by a healthcare professional for proper management. In normal physiology, all wounds will undergo a series of steps collectively known as the wound healing process, which include hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and tissue remodeling. Age, tissue oxygenation, stress, underlying medical conditions, and certain medications are just a few of the many factors known to affect the rate of wound healing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Injury in humans</span> Physiological wound caused by an external source

An injury is any physiological damage to living tissue caused by immediate physical stress. Injuries to humans can occur intentionally or unintentionally and may be caused by blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, burning, toxic exposure, asphyxiation, or overexertion. Injuries can occur in any part of the body, and different symptoms are associated with different injuries.

An antimicrobial is an agent that kills microorganisms (microbicide) or stops their growth. Antimicrobial medicines can be grouped according to the microorganisms they act primarily against. For example, antibiotics are used against bacteria, and antifungals are used against fungi. They can also be classified according to their function. The use of antimicrobial medicines to treat infection is known as antimicrobial chemotherapy, while the use of antimicrobial medicines to prevent infection is known as antimicrobial prophylaxis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Animal bite</span> Wound or puncture caused by animal teeth

An animal bite is a wound, usually a puncture or laceration, caused by the teeth. An animal bite usually results in a break in the skin but also includes contusions from the excessive pressure on body tissue from the bite. The contusions can occur without a break in the skin. Bites can be provoked or unprovoked. Other bite attacks may be apparently unprovoked. Biting is a physical action not only describing an attack but it is a normal response in an animal as it eats, carries objects, softens and prepares food for its young, removes ectoparasites from its body surface, removes plant seeds attached to its fur or hair, scratching itself, and grooming other animals. Animal bites often result in serious infections and mortality. Animal bites not only include injuries from the teeth of reptiles, mammals, but fish, and amphibians. Arthropods can also bite and leave injuries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Radiation burn</span> Damage to skin or biological tissue from radiation exposure

A radiation burn is a damage to the skin or other biological tissue and organs as an effect of radiation. The radiation types of greatest concern are thermal radiation, radio frequency energy, ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Innate immune system</span> Immunity strategy in living beings

The innate immune system or nonspecific immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies in vertebrates. The innate immune system is an alternate defense strategy and is the dominant immune system response found in plants, fungi, prokaryotes, and invertebrates.

Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are molecules within cells that are a component of the innate immune response released from damaged or dying cells due to trauma or an infection by a pathogen. They are also known as danger signals, and alarmins because they serve as warning signs to alert the organism to any damage or infection to its cells. DAMPs are endogenous danger signals that are discharged to the extracellular space in response to damage to the cell from mechanical trauma or a pathogen. Once a DAMP is released from the cell, it promotes a noninfectious inflammatory response by binding to a pattern recognition receptor (PRR). Inflammation is a key aspect of the innate immune response; it is used to help mitigate future damage to the organism by removing harmful invaders from the affected area and start the healing process. As an example, the cytokine IL-1α is a DAMP that originates within the nucleus of the cell which, once released to the extracellular space, binds to the PRR IL-1R, which in turn initiates an inflammatory response to the trauma or pathogen that initiated the release of IL-1α. In contrast to the noninfectious inflammatory response produced by DAMPs, pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) initiate and perpetuate the infectious pathogen-induced inflammatory response. Many DAMPs are nuclear or cytosolic proteins with defined intracellular function that are released outside the cell following tissue injury. This displacement from the intracellular space to the extracellular space moves the DAMPs from a reducing to an oxidizing environment, causing their functional denaturation, resulting in their loss of function. Outside of the aforementioned nuclear and cytosolic DAMPs, there are other DAMPs originated from different sources, such as mitochondria, granules, the extracellular matrix, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the plasma membrane.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sunburn</span> Burning of the skin by the suns radiation

Sunburn is a form of radiation burn that affects living tissue, such as skin, that results from an overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, usually from the Sun. Common symptoms in humans and other animals include red or reddish skin that is hot to the touch or painful, general fatigue, and mild dizziness. Other symptoms include blistering, peeling skin, swelling, itching, and nausea. Excessive UV radiation is the leading cause of (primarily) non-malignant skin tumors, which in extreme cases can be life-threatening. Sunburn is an inflammatory response in the tissue triggered by direct DNA damage by UV radiation. When the cells' DNA is overly damaged by UV radiation, type I cell-death is triggered and the tissue is replaced.

Infections caused by exposure to ionizing radiation can be extremely dangerous, and are of public and government concern. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the susceptibility of organisms to systemic infection increased following exposure to ionizing radiation. The risk of systemic infection is higher when the organism has a combined injury, such as a conventional blast, thermal burn, or radiation burn. There is a direct quantitative relationship between the magnitude of the neutropenia that develops after exposure to radiation and the increased risk of developing infection. Because no controlled studies of therapeutic intervention in humans are available, almost all of the current information is based on animal research.

Exposure to ionizing radiation is known to increase the future incidence of cancer, particularly leukemia. The mechanism by which this occurs is well understood, but quantitative models predicting the level of risk remain controversial. The most widely accepted model posits that the incidence of cancers due to ionizing radiation increases linearly with effective radiation dose at a rate of 5.5% per sievert; if correct, natural background radiation is the most hazardous source of radiation to general public health, followed by medical imaging as a close second. Additionally, the vast majority of non-invasive cancers are non-melanoma skin cancers caused by ultraviolet radiation. Non-ionizing radio frequency radiation from mobile phones, electric power transmission, and other similar sources have been investigated as a possible carcinogen by the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer, but to date, no evidence of this has been observed.

A penile injury is a medical emergency that afflicts the penis. Common injuries include fracture, avulsion injury, strangulation, entrapment, and amputation.

Hydrogel dressing is a medical dressing based on hydrogels, three-dimensional hydrophilic structure. The insoluble hydrophilic structures absorb polar wound exudates and allow oxygen diffusion at the wound bed to accelerate healing. Hydrogel dressings can be designed to prevent bacterial infection, retain moisture, promote optimum adhesion to tissues, and satisfy the basic requirements of biocompatibility. Hydrogel dressings can also be designed to respond to changes in the microenvironment at the wound bed. Hydrogel dressings should promote an appropriate microenvironment for angiogenesis, recruitment of fibroblasts, and cellular proliferation.

Injury in plants is damage caused by other organisms or by the non-living (abiotic) environment to plants. Animals that commonly cause injury to plants include insects, mites, nematodes, and herbivorous mammals; damage may also be caused by plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Abiotic factors that can damage plants include heat, freezing, flooding, lightning, ozone gas, and pollutant chemicals.

References

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