Injury

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A crabeater seal injured by a predator Crabeater Seal Injured by Predator.JPG
A crabeater seal injured by a predator

Injury is physiological damage to the living tissue of any organism, whether in humans, in other animals, or in plants.

Contents

Injuries can be caused in many ways, such as mechanically with penetration by sharp objects such as teeth or with blunt objects, by heat or cold, or by venoms and biotoxins. Injury prompts an inflammatory response in many taxa of animals; this prompts wound healing. In both plants and animals, substances are often released to help to occlude the wound, limiting loss of fluids and the entry of pathogens such as bacteria. Many organisms secrete antimicrobial chemicals which limit wound infection; in addition, animals have a variety of immune responses for the same purpose. Both plants and animals have regrowth mechanisms which may result in complete or partial healing over the injury. Cells too can repair damage to a certain degree.

Taxonomic range

Animals

A sand lizard that has shed its tail when attacked by a predator, and has started to regrow a tail from the site of the injury Zauneidechse 1469.jpg
A sand lizard that has shed its tail when attacked by a predator, and has started to regrow a tail from the site of the injury

Injury in animals is sometimes defined as mechanical damage to anatomical structure, [1] but it has a wider connotation of physical damage with any cause, including drowning, burns, and poisoning. [2] Such damage may result from attempted predation, territorial fights, falls, and abiotic factors. [2]

Injury prompts an inflammatory response in animals of many different phyla; [3] this prompts coagulation of the blood or body fluid, [4] followed by wound healing, which may be rapid, as in the cnidaria. [3] Arthropods are able to repair injuries to the cuticle that forms their exoskeleton to some extent. [5]

Animals in several phyla, including annelids, arthropods, cnidaria, molluscs, nematodes, and vertebrates are able to produce antimicrobial peptides to fight off infection following an injury. [1]

Humans

Injuries to humans elicit an elaborate response including emergency medicine, trauma surgery (illustrated), and pain management. US Navy 041117-M-0000G-004 U.S. Navy Surgeons and Hospital Corpsman, assigned to the Surgical-Shock Trauma Platoon (SSTP) at Camp Taqaddum, Iraq, operate on a Marine.jpg
Injuries to humans elicit an elaborate response including emergency medicine, trauma surgery (illustrated), and pain management.

Injury in humans has been studied extensively for its importance in medicine. Much of medical practice, including emergency medicine and pain management, is dedicated to the treatment of injuries. [6] [7] The World Health Organization has developed a classification of injuries in humans by categories including mechanism, objects/substances producing injury, place of occurrence, activity when injured and the role of human intent. [8] Injuries can cause psychological harm including post-traumatic stress disorder in addition to physical harm. [9]

Plants

Oak tree split by lightning, an abiotic cause of injury. Oak tree struck by lightning - geograph.org.uk - 4084083.jpg
Oak tree split by lightning, an abiotic cause of injury.

In plants, injuries result from the eating of plant parts by herbivorous animals including insects and mammals, [10] from damage to tissues by plant pathogens such as bacteria and fungi, which may gain entry after herbivore damage or in other ways, [11] and from abiotic factors such as heat, [12] freezing, [13] flooding, [14] lightning, [15] and pollutants [16] such as ozone. [17] Plants respond to injury by signalling that damage has occurred, [18] by secreting materials to seal off the damaged area, [19] by producing antimicrobial chemicals, [20] [21] and in woody plants by regrowing over wounds. [22] [23] [24]

Cell injury

Cell injury is a variety of changes of stress that a cell suffers due to external as well as internal environmental changes. Amongst other causes, this can be due to physical, chemical, infectious, biological, nutritional or immunological factors. Cell damage can be reversible or irreversible. Depending on the extent of injury, the cellular response may be adaptive and where possible, homeostasis is restored. [25] Cell death occurs when the severity of the injury exceeds the cell's ability to repair itself. [26] Cell death is relative to both the length of exposure to a harmful stimulus and the severity of the damage caused. [25]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Immune system</span> Biological system protecting an organism against disease

The immune system is a network of biological systems that protects an organism from diseases. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as cancer cells and objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biofilm</span> Aggregation of bacteria or cells on a surface

A biofilm is a syntrophic community of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other and often also to a surface. These adherent cells become embedded within a slimy extracellular matrix that is composed of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs). The cells within the biofilm produce the EPS components, which are typically a polymeric combination of extracellular polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and DNA. Because they have a three-dimensional structure and represent a community lifestyle for microorganisms, they have been metaphorically described as "cities for microbes".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Macrophage</span> Type of white blood cell

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell of the innate immune system that engulf and digest pathogens, such as cancer cells, microbes, cellular debris, and foreign substances, which do not have proteins that are specific to healthy body cells on their surface. This process is called phagocytosis, which acts to defend the host against infection and injury.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reactive oxygen species</span> Highly reactive molecules formed from diatomic oxygen (O₂)

In chemistry and biology, reactive oxygen species (ROS) are highly reactive chemicals formed from diatomic oxygen (O2), water, and hydrogen peroxide. Some prominent ROS are hydroperoxide (O2H), superoxide (O2-), hydroxyl radical (OH.), and singlet oxygen. ROS are pervasive because they are readily produced from O2, which is abundant. ROS are important in many ways, both beneficial and otherwise. ROS function as signals, that turn on and off biological functions. They are intermediates in the redox behavior of O2, which is central to fuel cells. ROS are central to the photodegradation of organic pollutants in the atmosphere. Most often however, ROS are discussed in a biological context, ranging from their effects on aging and their role in causing dangerous genetic mutations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jasmonate</span> Lipid-based plant hormones

Jasmonate (JA) and its derivatives are lipid-based plant hormones that regulate a wide range of processes in plants, ranging from growth and photosynthesis to reproductive development. In particular, JAs are critical for plant defense against herbivory and plant responses to poor environmental conditions and other kinds of abiotic and biotic challenges. Some JAs can also be released as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to permit communication between plants in anticipation of mutual dangers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant virus</span> Virus that affects plants

Plant viruses are viruses that affect plants. Like all other viruses, plant viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that do not have the molecular machinery to replicate without a host. Plant viruses can be pathogenic to vascular plants.

Respiratory burst is the rapid release of the reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide, from different cell types.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Innate immune system</span> Immunity strategy in living beings

The innate immune system or nonspecific immune system is one of the two main immunity strategies in vertebrates. The innate immune system is an alternate defense strategy and is the dominant immune system response found in plants, fungi, prokaryotes, and invertebrates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroimmune system</span>

The neuroimmune system is a system of structures and processes involving the biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the nervous system and immune system which protect neurons from pathogens. It serves to protect neurons against disease by maintaining selectively permeable barriers, mediating neuroinflammation and wound healing in damaged neurons, and mobilizing host defenses against pathogens.

<i>Pseudomonas syringae</i> Species of bacterium

Pseudomonas syringae is a rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacterium with polar flagella. As a plant pathogen, it can infect a wide range of species, and exists as over 50 different pathovars, all of which are available to researchers from international culture collections such as the NCPPB, ICMP, and others.

<i>Pantoea agglomerans</i> Species of bacterium

Pantoea agglomerans is a Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Erwiniaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pathogenic bacteria</span> Disease-causing bacteria

Pathogenic bacteria are bacteria that can cause disease. This article focuses on the bacteria that are pathogenic to humans. Most species of bacteria are harmless and are often beneficial but others can cause infectious diseases. The number of these pathogenic species in humans is estimated to be fewer than a hundred. By contrast, several thousand species are part of the gut flora present in the digestive tract.

<i>Annual Review of Plant Biology</i> Academic journal

Annual Review of Plant Biology is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews. It was first published in 1950 as the Annual Review of Plant Physiology. Sabeeha Merchant has been the editor since 2005, making her the longest-serving editor in the journal's history after Winslow Briggs (1973–1993). As of 2023, Journal Citation Reports lists the journal's 2022 impact factor as 23.9, ranking it second of 238 journal titles in the category "Plant Sciences". As of 2023, it is being published as open access, under the Subscribe to Open model.

Persister cells are subpopulations of cells that resist treatment, and become antimicrobial tolerant by changing to a state of dormancy or quiescence. Persister cells in their dormancy do not divide. The tolerance shown in persister cells differs from antimicrobial resistance in that the tolerance is not inherited and is reversible. When treatment has stopped the state of dormancy can be reversed and the cells can reactivate and multiply. Most persister cells are bacterial, and there are also fungal persister cells, yeast persister cells, and cancer persister cells that show tolerance for cancer drugs.

Biotic stress is stress that occurs as a result of damage done to an organism by other living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, beneficial and harmful insects, weeds, and cultivated or native plants. It is different from abiotic stress, which is the negative impact of non-living factors on the organisms such as temperature, sunlight, wind, salinity, flooding and drought. The types of biotic stresses imposed on an organism depend the climate where it lives as well as the species' ability to resist particular stresses. Biotic stress remains a broadly defined term and those who study it face many challenges, such as the greater difficulty in controlling biotic stresses in an experimental context compared to abiotic stress.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plant disease resistance</span> Ability of a plant to stand up to trouble

Plant disease resistance protects plants from pathogens in two ways: by pre-formed structures and chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system. Relative to a susceptible plant, disease resistance is the reduction of pathogen growth on or in the plant, while the term disease tolerance describes plants that exhibit little disease damage despite substantial pathogen levels. Disease outcome is determined by the three-way interaction of the pathogen, the plant and the environmental conditions.

Green leaf volatiles (GLV) are organic compounds released by plants. Some of these chemicals function as signaling compounds between either plants of the same species, of other species, or even different lifeforms like insects.

Scar free healing is the process by which significant injuries can heal without permanent damage to the tissue the injury has affected. In most healing, scars form due to the fibrosis and wound contraction, however in scar free healing, tissue is completely regenerated. During the 1990s, published research on the subject increased; it is a relatively recent term in the literature. Scar free healing occurs in foetal life but the ability progressively diminishes into adulthood. In other animals such as amphibians, however, tissue regeneration occurs, for example as skin regeneration in the adult axolotl.

Injury in plants is damage caused by other organisms or by the non-living (abiotic) environment to plants. Animals that commonly cause injury to plants include insects, mites, nematodes, and herbivorous mammals; damage may also be caused by plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Abiotic factors that can damage plants include heat, freezing, flooding, lightning, ozone gas, and pollutant chemicals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Injury in animals</span> Wound caused by an external source

Injury in animals is damage to the body caused by wounding, change in pressure, heat or cold, chemical substances, venoms and biotoxins. Injury prompts an inflammatory response in many taxa of animals; this prompts wound healing, which may be rapid, as in the Cnidaria.

References

  1. 1 2 Rennolds, Corey W.; Bely, Alexandra E. (29 September 2022). "Integrative biology of injury in animals". Biological Reviews. 98 (1): 34–62. doi:10.1111/brv.12894. ISSN   1464-7931. PMC   10087827 . PMID   36176189.
  2. 1 2 de Ramirez, Sarah Stewart; Hyder, Adnan A.; Herbert, Hadley K.; Stevens, Kent (2012). "Unintentional injuries: magnitude, prevention, and control". Annual Review of Public Health. 33: 175–191. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124558 . ISSN   1545-2093. PMID   22224893.
  3. 1 2 Sparks, Albert (1972). Invertebrate Pathology Noncommunicable Diseases. Academic Press. pp. 20, 133. ISBN   9780323151962.
  4. ↑ Cerenius, Lage; Söderhäll, Kenneth (6 November 2010). "Coagulation in Invertebrates". Journal of Innate Immunity. 3 (1): 3–8. doi: 10.1159/000322066 . ISSN   1662-811X. PMID   21051883. S2CID   20798250.
  5. ↑ Parle, Eoin; Dirks, Jan-Henning; Taylor, David (2016). "Bridging the gap: wound healing in insects restores mechanical strength by targeted cuticle deposition". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 13 (117): 20150984. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0984. ISSN   1742-5689. PMC   4874426 . PMID   27053653.
  6. ↑ Maerz, Linda L.; Davis, Kimberly A.; Rosenbaum, Stanley H. (2009). "Trauma". International Anesthesiology Clinics. 47 (1): 25–36. doi:10.1097/AIA.0b013e3181950030. ISSN   1537-1913. PMID   19131750. S2CID   220567282.
  7. ↑ Ahmadi, Alireza; Bazargan-Hejazi, Shahrzad; Heidari Zadie, Zahra; et al. (2016). "Pain management in trauma: A review study". Journal of Injury and Violence Research. 8 (2): 89–98. doi:10.5249/jivr.v8i2.707. ISSN   2008-4072. PMC   4967367 . PMID   27414816.
  8. ↑ "International Classification of External Causes of Injury (ICECI)". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 17 October 2004. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
  9. ↑ Agarwal, Tulika Mehta; Muneer, Mohammed; Asim, Mohammad; et al. (2020). "Psychological trauma in different mechanisms of traumatic injury: A hospital-based cross-sectional study". PLOS ONE. 15 (11): e0242849. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1542849A. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242849 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   7703890 . PMID   33253298.
  10. ↑ Tarr, S. A. J. (1972). "Plant injury due to insects, mites, nematodes and other pests". Principles of Plant Pathology. London: Macmillan. pp. 126–137. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-00355-6_9. ISBN   978-1-349-00357-0.
  11. ↑ Cappelli, Seraina Lisa; Koricheva, Julia (2 July 2021). "Interactions between mammalian grazers and plant pathogens: an elephant in the room?". New Phytologist. 232 (1). Wiley: 8–10. doi:10.1111/nph.17533. ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   34213785. S2CID   235708670.
  12. ↑ Smillie, R.M.; Nott, R. (1979). "Heat Injury in Leaves of Alpine, Temperate and Tropical Plants". Functional Plant Biology. 6 (1). CSIRO Publishing: 135. doi:10.1071/pp9790135. ISSN   1445-4408.
  13. ↑ Burke, M. J.; Gusta, L. V.; Quamme, H. A.; Weiser, C. J.; Li, P. H. (1976). "Freezing and Injury in Plants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 27 (1). Annual Reviews: 507–528. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.27.060176.002451. ISSN   0066-4294.
  14. ↑ Kramer, Paul J. (1 October 1951). "Causes of Injury to Plants Resulting from Flooding of the Soil". Plant Physiology. 26 (4). Oxford University Press: 722–736. doi:10.1104/pp.26.4.722. ISSN   0032-0889. PMC   437542 . PMID   16654407.
  15. ↑ Nelson, Scot C. (July 2008). "Lightning Injury to Plants" (PDF). Plant Disease (PD-40).
  16. ↑ Heath, R. L. (1980). "Initial Events in Injury to Plants by Air Pollutants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 31 (1). Annual Reviews: 395–431. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.31.060180.002143. ISSN   0066-4294.
  17. ↑ Hill, A. C.; Pack, M. R.; Treshow, M. (1961). "Plant injury induced by ozone". Phytopathology. 51. OSTI   5518148.
  18. ↑ Turlings, Ted C.; Tumlinson, James H. (1992). "Systemic release of chemical signals by herbivore-injured corn". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 89 (17): 8399–8402. Bibcode:1992PNAS...89.8399T. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.17.8399 . PMC   49926 . PMID   11607325.
  19. ↑ Sun, Qiang; Rost, Thomas L.; Matthews, Mark A. (2008). "Wound-induced vascular occlusions in Vitis vinifera (Vitaceae): Tyloses in summer and gels in winter1". American Journal of Botany. 95 (12). Wiley: 1498–1505. doi:10.3732/ajb.0800061. ISSN   0002-9122. PMID   21628157.
  20. ↑ Shigo, Alex L. (1985). "Compartmentalization of Decay in Trees". Scientific American. 252 (4): 96–103. Bibcode:1985SciAm.252d..96S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0485-96. hdl: 2027/uva.x002416568 . ISSN   0036-8733.
  21. ↑ González-Lamothe, Rocío; Mitchell, Gabriel; Gattuso, Mariza; Diarra, Moussa; Malouin, François; Bouarab, Kamal (31 July 2009). "Plant Antimicrobial Agents and Their Effects on Plant and Human Pathogens". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 10 (8). MDPI AG: 3400–3419. doi: 10.3390/ijms10083400 . ISSN   1422-0067. PMC   2812829 . PMID   20111686.
  22. ↑ Shigo, Alex L. (1985). "How tree branches are attached to trunks". Canadian Journal of Botany. 63 (8): 1391–1401. doi:10.1139/b85-193.
  23. ↑ O'Hara, Kevin L. (2007). "Pruning Wounds and Occlusion: A Long-Standing Conundrum in Forestry". Journal of Forestry. 105 (3): 131–138. doi:10.1093/jof/105.3.131. S2CID   10075580.
  24. ↑ "Tree pruning guide". US Forest Service for the US Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 26 April 2007.
  25. 1 2 Wolf, Ronni; et al. (2011). Emergency Dermatology . Cambridge University Press. pp.  1–10. ISBN   9780521717335.
  26. ↑ Cobb, J. P.; et al. (1996). "Mechanisms of cell injury and death". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 77 (1): 3–10. doi: 10.1093/bja/77.1.3 . PMID   8703628.
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