Lead abatement in the United States

Last updated

The chances of a house bought in the U.S. having lead based on the year it was painted. Lead chance.png
The chances of a house bought in the U.S. having lead based on the year it was painted.

Lead abatement is an activity to reduce levels of lead, particularly in the home environment, generally to permanently eliminate lead-based paint hazards, in order to reduce or eliminate incidents of lead poisoning.

Contents

Lead abatement may be undertaken in response to orders by state or local government. It requires specialized techniques that local construction contractors typically do not have. It includes activities such as lead-based paint inspections, risk assessments and lead-based paint removal.

In the United States, lead abatement activities are regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Individuals and firms that conduct lead-based paint activities, including abatement, must be certified.

Lead abatement is distinguished from Renovation, Repair and Painting (RRP) programs, which are typically performed at the option of the property owner for aesthetic or other reasons, or as an interim control to minimize lead hazards. RPP programs are not designed to permanently eliminate lead-based paint hazards.

Options

Lead paint removal can cost 8 to 15 dollars per square foot. [1] A kit offered by the EPA containing lead test costs 25 dollars. [2] After a house has been discovered to contain lead, its owner has four options they can pursue to prevent lead poisoning.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is a low-cost and relatively simple strategy. A paint-like coating is brushed or rolled unto the lead surface to create a watertight bond that seals the lead. [1] It is not the most permanent option, since normal wear and tear throughout the years will eventually weaken the coating.

Enclosure

The lead surface is covered with drywall, aluminum or vinyl cladding. Similar to encapsulation, it is considered to be relatively cheaper, but less reliable. [1]

Removal

The lead can be removed with techniques such as wire brushing or wet hand scraping with liquid paint removers. Contractors may use an electric sander equipped with a high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtered vacuum or a heat gun. Burning, torching, and machine sanding without a HEPA attachment is forbidden. [1] This option is the second most expensive, but has the advantage of being permanent.

Replacement

The most expensive option, since it calls for the entirety of whatever the lead paint is covering to be completely removed and disposed of. [1]

Costs

The savings from not needing to later clean up lead are much greater than the costs of not using lead. Peer reviewed research estimates a range of $17 to $221 saved for each dollar spent on lead hazard control. [3] The benefits include reduced health care costs, extended lives (and earnings), increased tax revenue, reductions in crime, and more. [3] The immense costs of inaction make lead hazard control highly economical. This is even more true in for the "lowest hanging fruit", like removing lead from all fuels including in lower income countries. The United Nations and the World Health Organization have been leading efforts to eliminate lead in paint since 2002. [4]

History

The reason that lead paint is such a common issue is because of its durability and widespread use. [5] It was constantly endorsed by local and state governments until the 1970s, despite domestic occurrences of lead poisoning and reports from European countries that revealed its toxicity. By 1940, it was commonly associated with negative effects. It was only in the 1970s when the U.S. took action against lead based paints. [5] [6]

up to a few percent of lead is commonly added to brass to make it machine more easily; this reduces the clogging of cutting tools and allows the metal to be cut more quickly. Cutting tools smear lead across the surface; surface finishing may also have an effect. Lead also fill voids in castings; many plumbing fittings are cast, though some are wrought (formed hot without melting). Castings (such as many faucets) are often made from scrap metal, as this is cheaper; however, removing lead from the scrap can be expensive. Since lead does not dissolve in brass, as the alloy cools, it forms grains of brass; the lead is found in inclusions within the grains, but also along the grain boundaries, which form a network like that of a pile of soap bubbles (the grains being the spaces inside the bubbles). There may thus be significant lead leaching from alloys which seem to have quite a low lead content. [7]

Timeline

YearEvent
1887US medical authorities diagnose childhood lead poisoning.
1904Child lead poisoning linked to lead-based paints.
1909France, Belgium and Austria ban white-lead interior paint.
1914Pediatric lead-paint poisoning death from eating crib paint is described.
1921 Tetraethyllead is first used in gasoline.
1921 National Lead Company admits lead is a poison.
1922 League of Nations bans white-lead interior paint; US declines to adopt.
1943Report concludes eating lead paint chips causes physical and neurological disorders, behavior, learning and intelligence problems in children.
1951 Baltimore banned the use of lead pigment in interior paint in Baltimore housing, the first such restriction in the country.
1955Public health officials and organizations adopted a voluntary national standard to prohibit, in effect, the use of lead pigments in interior residential paints.
1971Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act passed. [8]
1976Phase-out of tetraethyllead in gasoline began
1978Lead-based house paint banned by the Consumer Product Safety Commission [9]
1986Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act require new drinking-water waterpipes, solder, and flux to be "lead-free"; however, this is defined as less than 8% lead in pipes, and 0.2% in solder and flux. [10] It is possible to make plumbing fittings from metal that literally does not contain any lead. [7]
1996Nationwide ban on leaded gasoline finalized. [11] New plumbing fittings (valves, joints, etc) and fixtures (faucets, for instance) were now also required to contain less than 8% lead. [10]
1999The State of California asked key-makers to voluntarily reduce the amount of lead used in unplated brass keys, after tests found that handling the average brass key twice a day would cause exposure of 19 times the exposure limits. Plated keys were unaffected. [12] [13] [14]
2014In 2014 the drinking-water plumbing rule was changed; new plumbing now had to weighted average of ≤0.25% lead on the wetted surfaces [10] (meaning that each area of pure lead would, in theory, be counterbalanced by 400× that area of lead-free metal surface). Exceptions apply for water used for irrigating crops, watering gardens, and large valves used in the water distribution system. [10] This standard was criticized, as it did not measure leaching: faucets made to the new standard sometimes leached more lead than those that met the old standard. [15]

Recent issues

Flint Water Crisis

Flint, Michigan has become relatively infamous because of the Flint Water Crisis caused by its lead-contaminated drinking water, first reported in 2015, [16] and still reported as ongoing in 2020. [17] [18] [19] Poorly treated water and decaying pipes caused lead levels to rise significantly and become extremely dangerous if ingested. [20] Other cities are suspected of having contaminated water following an analysis of EPA records by the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC). It has been estimated that in 2015 over 18 million people had been served by 5,363 community water systems that did not comply with EPA's Lead and Copper Rule. [21]

Other

An additional 33 cities around the US have been investigated for violating EPA guidance when it comes to properly testing their water systems for lead contamination. The results of analyzing documents found some that correspond to the recent water testing operations in these cities, and show that in 23 cities testers or members of the public were instructed to run water slowly, which reduces the amount of lead dislodged from the pipes. In seven cities testers or members of the public were instructed to remove aerators (which reduces lead content) before opening water taps and drawing samples. In 21 cities testers or members of the public were instructed to "pre-flush" before testing done by EPA, which influences the amount of lead the EPA can detect. [22]

A typical water utility action is to adjust the chemistry of the drinking water with anti-corrosive additives, but replacement of lead service lines (pipes that connect water mains to customers) is also an option. [23] Most communities have avoided lead service line replacement due to the high cost. [24]

It has been estimated that removing the large, common lead hazards in the US would cost $400bn over a 10-year period, but save $84bn just for children born in 2018. There have been some successful lawsuits against the manufacturers of lead-including products for damages from lead poisoning, similar to earlier lawsuits against tobacco companies. [25]

Less than 20% of American children are thought to be tested for lead levels, although some standards call for all children to be screened at ages 1 and 2. There is a lack of systematic screening. The Flint water crisis was detected by other means; there is no robust surveillance system for detecting such emergencies.

Children in poorer and racialized communities are exposed to more lead, due to historic discriminatory policies, as are children on water from private wells, which is often not tested. [25] [26]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tap water</span> Water supplied through a pipe and tap combination

Tap water is water supplied through a tap, a water dispenser valve. In many countries, tap water usually has the quality of drinking water. Tap water is commonly used for drinking, cooking, washing, and toilet flushing. Indoor tap water is distributed through indoor plumbing, which has existed since antiquity but was available to very few people until the second half of the 19th century when it began to spread in popularity in what are now developed countries. Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead poisoning</span> Poisoning caused by lead in the body

Lead poisoning, also known as plumbism and saturnism, is a type of metal poisoning caused by lead in the body. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, constipation, headaches, irritability, memory problems, infertility, and tingling in the hands and feet. It causes almost 10% of intellectual disability of otherwise unknown cause and can result in behavioral problems. Some of the effects are permanent. In severe cases, anemia, seizures, coma, or death may occur.

A corrosion inhibitor or anti-corrosive is a chemical compound added to a liquid or gas to decrease the corrosion rate of a metal that comes into contact with the fluid. The effectiveness of a corrosion inhibitor depends on fluid composition and dynamics. Corrosion inhibitors are common in industry, and also found in over-the-counter products, typically in spray form in combination with a lubricant and sometimes a penetrating oil. They may be added to water to prevent leaching of lead or copper from pipes.

Radon mitigation is any process used to reduce radon gas concentrations in the breathing zones of occupied buildings, or radon from water supplies. Radon is a significant contributor to environmental radioactivity and indoor air pollution. Exposure to radon can cause serious health problems such as lung cancer.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead and Copper Rule</span> US drinking water regulation

The Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) is a United States federal regulation that limits the concentration of lead and copper allowed in public drinking water at the consumer's tap, as well as limiting the permissible amount of pipe corrosion occurring due to the water itself. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) first issued the rule in 1991 pursuant to the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). The EPA promulgated the regulations following studies that concluded that copper and lead have an adverse effect on individuals. The LCR limits the levels of these metals in water through improving water treatment centers, determining copper and lead levels for customers who use lead plumbing parts, and eliminating the water source as a source of lead and copper. If the lead and copper levels exceed the "action levels", water suppliers are required to educate their consumers on how to reduce exposure to lead. In a 2005 report EPA stated that the LCR requirements had been effective in 96 percent of systems serving at least 3,300 people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Altgeld Gardens Homes</span> Public housing development in Chicago, Illinois, United States

Altgeld Gardens Homes is a Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) public housing project on the far south side of Chicago, Illinois, United States, on the border of Chicago and Riverdale, Illinois. The residents are 97% African-American according to the 2000 United States Census. Built between 1944 and 1945 with 1,498 units, the development consists primarily of two-story row houses spread over 190 acres (0.77 km2).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sewage treatment</span> Process of removing contaminants from municipal wastewater

Sewage treatment is a type of wastewater treatment which aims to remove contaminants from sewage to produce an effluent that is suitable to discharge to the surrounding environment or an intended reuse application, thereby preventing water pollution from raw sewage discharges. Sewage contains wastewater from households and businesses and possibly pre-treated industrial wastewater. There are a high number of sewage treatment processes to choose from. These can range from decentralized systems to large centralized systems involving a network of pipes and pump stations which convey the sewage to a treatment plant. For cities that have a combined sewer, the sewers will also carry urban runoff (stormwater) to the sewage treatment plant. Sewage treatment often involves two main stages, called primary and secondary treatment, while advanced treatment also incorporates a tertiary treatment stage with polishing processes and nutrient removal. Secondary treatment can reduce organic matter from sewage,  using aerobic or anaerobic biological processes. A so-called quarternary treatment step can also be added for the removal of organic micropollutants, such as pharmaceuticals. This has been implemented in full-scale for example in Sweden.

Drinking water quality in the United States is generally safe. In 2016, over 90 percent of the nation's community water systems were in compliance with all published U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards. Over 286 million Americans get their tap water from a community water system. Eight percent of the community water systems—large municipal water systems—provide water to 82 percent of the US population. The Safe Drinking Water Act requires the US EPA to set standards for drinking water quality in public water systems. Enforcement of the standards is mostly carried out by state health agencies. States may set standards that are more stringent than the federal standards.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead contamination in Washington, D.C., drinking water</span>

While performing research into premature pipe corrosion for the District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (WASA) in 2001, Marc Edwards, an expert in plumbing corrosion, discovered lead levels in the drinking water of Washington, D.C., at least 83 times higher than the accepted safe limit. He found that the decision to change from chlorine to chloramine as a treatment chemical had caused the spike in lead levels. The contamination has left thousands of children with lifelong health risks and led to a re-evaluation of the use of monochloramine in public drinking-water systems

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marc Edwards (professor)</span>

Marc Edwards is a civil engineering/environmental engineer and the Charles Edward Via Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Virginia Tech. An expert on water treatment and corrosion, Edwards's research on elevated lead levels in Washington, DC's municipal water supply gained national attention, changed the city's recommendations on water use in homes with lead service pipes, and caused the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to admit to publishing a report so rife with errors that a congressional investigation called it "scientifically indefensible." He is considered one of the world's leading experts in water corrosion in home plumbing, and a nationally recognized expert on copper corrosion. He is also one of the whistleblowers in the Flint water crisis, along with Dr. Mona Hanna-Attisha.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead-based paint in the United States</span> Manufacture of banned in 1978 though widely used because of its durability.

Lead-based paint was widely used in the United States because of its durability. The United States banned the manufacture of lead-based house paint in 1978 due to health concerns.

Encasement is the coating over, covering or "encasing" of all building components, interior and exterior. This includes all roofing and toxic hazards materials, such as asbestos, lead-based paint, mold/mildew and other harmful substances, found in buildings. The technique of encasing all building components, including unsafe ones, with green coatings is by far the most efficient way to reduce the harmful effects on people and the environment while lengthening the life of buildings. It is an economical alternative to other abatement methods such as removal, disposal and replacement.

Lead contamination in Oakland represents a serious and persistent public health threat. Lead contamination in modern Oakland comes from three primary sources: remnants from previous industry, deposits from leaded gasoline, and paint chips from leaded paints. Significant portions of the City of Oakland, California have soil lead levels far in excess of 400 ppm, the level at which the US EPA suggests remedial action be taken, and far higher than 80 ppm, the level at which California’s Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment suggests action should be taken. Not all areas of Oakland are affected equally: West Oakland's contamination is especially severe, particularly near the former Oakland Army Base, and many of Oakland's poorer neighborhoods also suffer disproportionately.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Flint water crisis</span> Contamination by lead of water supply in Flint, Michigan

The Flint water crisis was a public health crisis that started in 2014 after the drinking water for the city of Flint, Michigan was contaminated with lead and possibly Legionella bacteria. In April 2014, during a financial crisis, state-appointed emergency manager Darnell Earley changed Flint's water source from the Detroit Water and Sewerage Department to the Flint River. Residents complained about the taste, smell, and appearance of the water. Officials failed to apply corrosion inhibitors to the water, which resulted in lead from aging pipes leaching into the water supply, exposing around 100,000 residents to elevated lead levels. A pair of scientific studies confirmed that lead contamination was present in the water supply. The city switched back to the Detroit water system on October 16, 2015. It later signed a 30-year contract with the new Great Lakes Water Authority (GLWA) on November 22, 2017.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead abatement</span> The reduction of lead, particularly in homes

Lead abatement includes lead-based paint abatement activities, such as inspections, risk assessments, as well as removal. Lead abatement must be performed by educated, certified professionals with proper safety protocols to limit lead exposure. The goal is to permanently eliminate lead-based paint hazards, such as serious permanent and irreversible health damage due to lead poisoning in children. This is especially important in home environments and in any facility with frequent visitation by children, particularly those built before 1978.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corey Stern</span> American lawyer

Corey Stern is an American lawyer, known for representing children and their families in lead-poisoning and sex abuse lawsuits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pittsburgh water crisis</span> 2016 lead contamination crisis in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US

The Pittsburgh water crisis arose from a substantial increase in the lead concentration of the city's water supply. Although catalyzed by the hiring of cost-cutting water consultancy Veolia in 2012, and an unauthorized change of anti-erosion chemicals in 2014, this spike in lead concentration has roots in decades of lead pipe erosion. Since the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority (PWSA) first failed its water quality test in 2016, it has exceeded the federal lead threshold of 15 ppb by almost 1.5 times. This level of lead contamination poses serious health risks to residents, particularly children and pregnant women. In an attempt to remedy the situation, the PWSA has begun removing lead pipes from the city's water lines and has decided to introduce orthophosphate to the water supply.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Newark water crisis</span> Water contamination event in New Jersey

The Newark, New Jersey water crisis began in 2016 when elevated lead levels were observed in multiple Newark Public Schools district schools throughout the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lead service line</span> Pipe used to connect water main to users

A lead service line is a pipe made of lead which is used in potable water distribution to connect a water main to a user's premises.

The Residential Lead-Based Hazard Reduction Act of 1992, was a 1992 law passed by the US Congress that regulates the selling of houses with lead paint in the United States and educates consumers about the dangers of lead paint.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 "Lead Paint Removal: Options and Costs". Houselogic. 2011-03-25. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  2. ↑ "Lead Paint Test Kits: Cheap & Easy to Use". Houselogic. 2011-03-25. Retrieved 2016-12-19.
  3. 1 2 Gould, E (2009). "Childhood Lead Poisoning: Conservative Estimates of the Social and Economic Benefits of Lead Hazard Control". Environmental Health Perspectives. 117 (7): 1162–1167. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800408. PMC   2717145 . PMID   19654928.
  4. ↑ "The need to eliminate lead paint". International Programme on Chemical Safety. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. Archived from the original on October 19, 2016. Retrieved 2019-08-25.
  5. 1 2 Lah, Katarina (2011-05-08). "History of Lead Use". Toxipedia. Seattle, WA: Institute of Neurotoxicology & Neurological Disorders.
  6. ↑ "The History of the Use of Lead-Based Paint". Understanding Lead Pigment Litigation. leadlawsuits.com. Retrieved 2016-12-16.[ self-published source? ]
  7. 1 2 Stagnation Time, Composition, pH, and Orthophosphate Effects on Metal Leaching from Brass. Washington DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency. September 1996. p. 7. EPA/600/R-96/103.
  8. ↑ United States. Lead-Based Paint Poisoning Prevention Act. Pub. L. Tooltip Public Law (United States)  91–695. Approved 1971-01-13.
  9. ↑ U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Washington, D.C. "Lead-Containing Paint and Certain Consumer Products Bearing Lead-Containing Paint." Federal Register,42 FR 44199, 1977-09-01. 16 CFR 1303 . Bans residential lead-based paint manufactured after February 27, 1978.
  10. 1 2 3 4 "Use of Lead Free Pipes, Fittings, Fixtures, Solder, and Flux for Drinking Water". Envoronmental Protection Agency. 3 August 2015.
  11. ↑ US EPA, OA. "EPA Takes Final Step in Phaseout of Leaded Gasoline". epa-takes-final-step-phaseout-leaded-gasoline.html. Retrieved 2019-04-07.
  12. ↑ News & Alerts – California Dept. of Justice – Office of the Attorney General Archived 2008-10-26 at the Wayback Machine , October 12, 1999
  13. ↑ News & Alerts – California Dept. of Justice – Office of the Attorney General Archived 2008-10-26 at the Wayback Machine , April 27, 2001
  14. ↑ San Francisco Superior Court, People v. Ilco Unican Corp., et a. (No. 307102) and Mateel Environmental Justice Foundation v. Ilco Unican Corp., et al. (No. 305765)
  15. ↑ Neltner, Tom (November 6, 2018). "Lead from a new "lead-free" brass faucet? More common than you'd hope". EDF.
  16. ↑ Lin, Jeremy C.F.; Rutter, Jean; Park, Haeyoun (2016-01-21). "Events That Led to Flint's Water Crisis". New York Times.
  17. ↑ Ahmad, Zahra (2019-09-04). "Flint misses 'self-imposed' deadline for replacing lead service lines". www.mlive.com. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
  18. ↑ "Flint misses deadline to test homes for lead in water". Michigan Radio. 2020-01-01. Retrieved 2020-04-10.
  19. ↑ "Service Line Replacement Program". City of Flint. Retrieved 2020-05-23.
  20. ↑ Keller, Andrew. "United Way estimates cost of helping children $100M" . Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  21. ↑ Olson, Erik; Fedinick, Kristi Pullen (June 2016). "What's in Your Water? Flint and Beyond" (PDF). New York, NY: Natural Resources Defense Council.
  22. ↑ Milman, Oliver; Glenza, Jessica (2016-06-02). "At least 33 US cities used water testing 'cheats' over lead concerns". The Guardian.
  23. ↑ "Lead and Copper Rule Implementation Tools". Drinking Water Requirements for States and Public Water Systems. EPA. 2019-07-22.
  24. ↑ Wines, Michael; Schwartz, John (2016-02-08). "Unsafe Lead Levels in Tap Water Not Limited to Flint". New York Times.
  25. 1 2 Almendrala, Anna (26 June 2019). "Poisoned by their homes: how the US is failing children exposed to lead". The Guardian.
  26. ↑ "US children who drink water from private wells at higher risk of lead exposure". the Guardian. 8 July 2020.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.