Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Along with the genera Crucibulum , Mycocalia , Nidula and Nidularia , they are known collectively as the bird's nest fungi due to their small nest-like fruiting bodies containing egg-shaped peridioles. The genus Cyathus was monographed by mycologist Lloyd (1906), and later Brodie (1975, 1984), and their species concepts, especially those of Brodie (1975), are followed by most mycologists.
The differentiation of Cyathus species is based on observable characters, such as fruiting body shape, coverings and plications of peridia, and microscopic characteristics such as the anatomy of peridioles, and the size and shape of basidiospores. The following characters are used to help identify Cyathus species:
Microscopic characters
The following list of species is compiled from Brodie's monograph (1975) and subsequent revision (1984), as well as articles written since then describing new species or reducing others to synonymy.
| Species authority | Distribution | Dimensions (mm tall × mm wide) | Characteristics | Spore size (μm) shape |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Etymology | ||||
| C. africanus [1] H.J. Brodie (1967) | Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) | 4–6 × 6–8 | experidium not plicate, woolly, hairs of equal length knotted into tight curls; endoperidium smooth with faint or irregular ridges; peridioles 2–2.5 mm in diameter, silvery with tunica | 6.5–8.5 × 8.5–12 ovoid, with a distinct apiculus |
| L. African | ||||
| C. amazonicus [2] Trierveiler-pereira & Baseia (2009) | Brazil | 9–11 × 5–7 | experidium finely plicate, woolly, hairs yellowish brown; endoperidium distinctly plicate; peridioles 2–3 × 1.2–2 mm, dark gray and shiny | 14–19 × 12–16 subglobose |
| L. Amazon | ||||
| C. annulatus [3] H.J. Brodie (1970) | Cypress Hills (Canada) | 7–10 × 7–12 [4] | pale brown, covered on exoperidium with tomentum; basal emplacement small and inconspicuous; endoperidium pale buff, shiny, lightly striate; lip of peridium with deep brown ring 0.5 mm wide; peridioles 1.5–1.75 mm, roughly triangular with shiny tunica [4] | 15.5–17 × 15–19 [4] ellipsoid to ovate or roughly spherical |
| C. badius Kobayasi (1937) | Japan | 8–10 × 6–8 | Exoperidium dark brown, fruiting bodies arising from wooly base 3–mm in diameter; peridioles lenticular, 2.3 mm long by 2 mm wide by 0.6–0.9 mm thick, silvery-lead colored, with tunica. [5] | 15–18 × 11–13 [5] |
| L. badius (dull brown) | ||||
| C. berkeleyanus (Tul. & C. Tul.) Lloyd (1906) | Widespread distribution in the tropics: West Indies, Florida, Mexico, Bolivia, Brazil, Hawaiian Islands | 6–8 × 4–6 [6] | Exoperidium hairy in fresh specimens, but wears off in age, leaving surface smooth and plicate; inner surface variably plicate; peridioles dark brown, 1.5–3 mm in diameter; typically elliptical, with a thin tunica. [6] | 6–9 × 4–7 [6] |
| C. bulleri [7] H.J. Brodie (1967) | West Indies, Hawaiian Islands, Mexico [4] | 5–9 × 5–8 [4] | Exoperidium with fine tomentum and long, converging downward-pointing hairs, plicate in upper third; ectoperidal surface plicate, silvery; epiphragm white with vertical tufts of hyphae; peridioles 2–2.5 mm in diameter with thick tunica, silvery when fresh, dark-brown when old. [8] | 5–8.5 spherical [8] |
| C. canna [9] Lloyd (1906) | Tropical locales: Jamaica, Costa Rica, Barbados, Mexico, Mauritius | 7–8 × 6–8 [8] | Exoperidium dark brown, scabrous with short tomentum; endoperidial surface smooth, white; peridioles with thin tunica on upper side. [8] | 7–9 [8] roughly spherical |
| L. from Gr. canna (a reed) | ||||
| C. chevalieri Har. & Pat. (1909) | Oubangui | Up to 20 × 5–7 [10] | Resembles C. striatus | 8 × 5 ovoid [10] |
| C. colensoi Berk. (1855) | New Zealand, Australia | 6–7 × 5–6 [11] | Cups bell-shaped, smooth with fine hairs pressed down on exoperidium; peridioles approximately 2 mm | Some ellipsoid, 10–12 × 8–10; some subglobose, 9–12 [11] |
| W. Colenso | ||||
| C. confusus [12] Tai & Hung (1948) | Yunnan (China) | 11–17 × 5–9 [5] | Exterior surface light cinnamon colored, shaggy; interior surface light buff, smooth; tunica thick. | 7–10 × 5–6.4 [5] elliptic or narrowly obovate [5] |
| L. confusus (confused) | ||||
| C. cornucopiodes [13] T.X. Zhou & W. Ren (1992) | China | |||
| C. costatus Lloyd (1936) | Puerto Rico | 2.5–3 mm diameter [14] | Exoperidium covered with dark, strigose hairs, ribbed, plicate; peridioles small (1 mm), black. [14] | 16–× 5– [14] elliptical |
| L. costatus (ribbed) | ||||
| C. crassimurus [15] H.J. Brodie (1971) | Hawaii | 5 × 6–7 | Golden colored, plicate, external hairs; radially wrinkled dark brown peridioles. Has a two-layered cortex and long narrow spores. [16] | 17–20 × 11–12 ellipsoid, very thick-walled (2.5–4 μm) [17] |
| L. crassus (thick) murus (wall) | ||||
| C. crispus H.J. Brodie (1974) [18] | Ghana | Golden-colored, plicate peridia covered on external surface with curls of hyphal hairs | ||
| C. earlei Lloyd (1906) | Tropical or subtropical: Cuba, Puerto Rico, Mexico, Hawaii | 6–7 × 8 [11] | Dark brown exterior, silvery (almost white) interior surface; tomentum of short hairs; peridioles up to 2 mm wide, thin tunica on upper side [19] | 12 × 10 to 22 × 12 [20] |
| F.S. Earle | ||||
| C. ellipsoideus H.J. Brodie (1974) [21] | Mysore India | Pale colored and plicate; has peridioles and spores with an ellipsoidal outline. [16] | ||
| C. elmeri Bres. | Philippines | 7–10 × 7–9 [17] | Peridioles ash-grey, powdery, 1.3–1.5 mm in diameter; thin tunica (100–150 μm thick). [17] | 18–22 × 10–12 [17] ellipsoidal |
| A.D.E. Elmer | ||||
| C. fimicola Berk. (1881) | Puerto Rico, Mexico | 2–3 × 4–5 | Pale, with strigose matted hairs; peridioles small, black, 1.5 mm | 8 × 16 [22] |
| C. gayanus Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | Chile, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Venezuela | 153 × 5–6 | Narrow, conic, dark brown, inner surface striate, out surface only faintly striate; peridioles black, 3 mm with thick outer wall. | 20–32 roughly spherical [14] |
| C. Gay | ||||
| C. gracilis [23] H.J. Brodie (1973) | Luzon (Philippines); Brazil [24] | 4–7 × 8–10 | Peridium slender, obconic, thin-walled (0.2–0.4 mm); outer surface umber- or rust-colored and covered with conical tufts of hairs, not plicate, inner surface same color as outer or lighter; epiphragm pale buff with brown hairs; peridioles 2 mm in diameter, circular. [25] | 20 × 10 ellipsoidal |
| L. gracilis (slender) | ||||
| C. griseocarpus [26] H.J. Brodie (1984) | ||||
| C. helenae H.J. Brodie (1966) | Alpine and boreal, and dry areas of Idaho; Brazil [24] | 15–19 × 12–14 | ||
| C. hirtulus B. Liu & Y.M. Li (1989) | 18–25.5 × 7.5–9 | |||
| C. hookeri [27] Berk. (1854) | India, New Zealand, Yunnan (China) | up to 14 × 10 [28] | Bell-shaped | |
| J. Hooker | ||||
| C. intermedius (Mont.) Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | West Indies, Florida, Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Philippines | 8–9 × 7–8 | Pale fawn color, when young covered with tomentum organized in nodules; peridioles about 2 mm in diameter, with a thin tunica. | 10–× 16 elliptical [29] |
| L. inter (middle) and medius (middle) | ||||
| C. jiayuguanensis J. Yu, T.X. Zhou & L.Z. Zhao (2002) | ||||
| C. julietae H.J. Brodie (1967) | Jamaica | 7–8 × 7–8 [30] | Pale brown or yellow, obconic with straight sides, thin-walled; exoperidium not plicate, covered with very fine hairs; inside wall smooth, glossy; narrow basal emplacement; epiphragm pale brown or yellowish; peridioles black, elliptical, wrinkled on upper surface, 1.5–1.75 mm long; thin tunica, single-layered cortex. | 5–9 × 5–7 subglobose to ellipsoid, thin-walled. [30] |
| L. from the name Juliet | ||||
| C. lanatus (H.J. Brodie) R.L. Zhao (2007) [31] | ||||
| C. lijiangensis [32] T.X. Zhou & R.L. Zhao (2004) | China | 6–9 × 3–6 | Obconic or funnel-shaped, outer surface covered by greyish-white hairs and narrow tufts, plicate externally and internally, lip not setose; peridioles 1.5–2 × 1.5–1.8 mm, depressed, mostly round or ellipsoid. | 15.5–18.5 × 11–15 |
| C. limbatus Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | British Guiana, West Indies, China, India, Africa, South America, Hawaiian Islands, Pacific Islands | 7–10 × 6–7 [14] | Dark brown color, inner and outer surfaces plicate; peridioles 2 mm wide or more, deep brown to black, shiny. Synonymous with C. cheliensis | 16–22 × 10–12 |
| L. limbatus (bordered, or fringed) | ||||
| C. luxiensis [33] T.X. Zhou, J. Yu & Y. Hui Chen (2003) | China | |||
| C. microsporus Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | San Domingo, Cuba, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Hawaii, Florida | 5–7 × 6–8 [8] | Obconic, exoperidium no plicate, at times hairy; endoperidium smooth or with faint ridges, but not plicate; peridioles black, about 2 mm [34] | 5–6 × 4 [8] |
| Gr. mikros (small) and spora (seed) | ||||
| C. minimus Pat. | China | 4–5 × 4 [8] | Exoperidium covered with hairs pressed-down. Interior surface smooth. Peridioles approximately 1 mm, with a thin tunica. Single-layered cortex, 50 μm thick. | 18–20 × 10–12 [8] |
| L. minimus (smallest) | ||||
| C. montagnei Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | Brazil, West Indies, Central America, Venezuela, Congo, Philippines, Thailand | 7–10 × 8 [35] | dark brown, fading with age, outside hirsute, faintly plicate; inside walls widely plicate, silvery-colored Peridioles are black and shiny, with a thin tunica, cortex one-layered but may appear two-layered | 20 × 12 ellipsoid |
| for Jean P. Montagne, French mycologist | ||||
| C. nigroalbus Lloyd (1906) | Samoa, Fiji | |||
| C. novae-zeelandiae Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | New Zealand | |||
| C. olivaceobrunneus Tai & Hung (1948) | Yunnan (China) | 7–8 × 6 [36] | 16–19 × 8.6–10 ellipitic, rounded at both ends | |
| L. oliva (olive) and brunneus (brown) | ||||
| C. olla (Batsch) Pers. (1801) | Common, widespread | 10–15 × 8–10 | Flared outwards towards the mouth; exoperidium grey, fine-textured; endoperidium smooth; peridioles large, up to 3.5 wide, irregularly shaped, with tunica. [37] | 10–14 × 6–8 [37] |
| L. olla (pot) | ||||
| C. pallidus Berk. & M.A. Curtis (1868) | West Indies, Mexico, South America (Brazil and Peru), United States (Georgia and Florida), Hawaiian Islands | 5–7 × 5–7 [30] | Crucible shaped, pale buff-colored; thin and friable peridium walls; exoperidium covered with long down-ward-bent hairs; peridioles dark grey to black; 2 mm diameter; with a thin tunica. | 7.5–15 × 4–8.5 [30] Mostly ellipsoid. |
| L. pallidus (pale-colored) | ||||
| C. pictus [38] H.J. Brodie (1971) | Mexico | 8–9 × 5 | Outer surface with fine hairs clumped into small mounds; cinnamon brown when dry, dark brown when moist; the mouth has a distinct red-brown band (0.2–0.3 mm wide) immediately below the rim; inside wall smooth, not plicate, lead-grey; emplacement large (7 mm); peridioles situated deep in cup, black, irregular shape (1.75–2 mm wide × 2–2.5 mm long), with depression on upper side; no tunica. | 26–32 globose |
| L. picted (painted) | ||||
| C. poeppigii Tul. & C. Tul. (1844) | Warm countries: West Indies, South America, Hawaiian Islands, Asia, Africa, China, Florida | 6–8 × 6 | Narrowly obconic, felty or shaggy, reddish brown to dark brown, almost black in age; both inner and outer surface deeply fluted or plicate; peridioles black and shiny. Synonymous with C. megasporus | 30–42 × 20–28 elliptical [39] |
| Poeppig, the collector | ||||
| C. pullus Tai & Hung (1948) [12] | Yunnan China | |||
| C. pygmaeus Lloyd (1906) | United States: Washington State, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, California; Santiago (Chile) | 4–4.5 × 3.5–4 | Exoperidium greyish brown, smooth, with appressed hairs; peridioles about 1 mm, with thin tunica. [11] Synonymous with C. gansuensis | 12–14 × 8–9 [11] |
| L. pygmaeus (dwarf) | ||||
| C. renweii [32] T.X. Zhou & R.L. Zhao (2004) | China | 8–10 × 5–6 | Obconic or cup-shaped; outer surface brownish, with yellowish to pinkish hairs and narrow tufts, strongly plicate; peridioles 2 mm diameter | 21–31 × 10.5–13.5 ellipsoid to elongate-ellipsoid |
| C. rudis Pat. (1924) | New Caledonia, Amboina | 5–10 × 5–8 | Conic; striate on inner surface, with reddish squamules on outer surface; interior surface silvery-white; peridioles black-brown with thin tunica, 1 mm wide [10] | 9–12 × 5 elliptical |
| C. setosus H.J. Brodie (1967) | St Lucia, Trinidad, Guadelope, Jamaica, Mexico, Bolivia | 8–10 × 7–8 | Mouth of cup has stiff, dark setae 0.5–1 mm long; outside surface with fine appressed hairs and some longer tangled hairs; inside surface barely plicate, silvery; basal emplacement narrow (1.5–2 mm wide); epiphragm thin, white to pale buff; peridioles angular, black, shiny, 2.5 or more wide. | 17–24 × 10–14 [40] |
| L. setosus (bristly or hairy) | ||||
| C. sinensis [41] Imazeki (1950) | Kyushu Islands (Japan) | 5–6 × 2.5–5 | Peridium with obconic shape, woolly exoperidial surface (hairs tufted), cinnamon-brown color; inner surface smooth, lead-white; peridioles grey, 1.3 mm wide, 0.5 mm thick. | 12.5–18.5 × 8.3–10.3 ellipsoid [42] |
| L.sinensis (Chinese) | ||||
| C. stercoreus (Schwein.) De Toni (1888) | Worldwide | |||
| L. stercorarius (of dung) | ||||
| C. striatus (Huds.) Willd. (1787) | Widespread in temperate regions; Europe, America, India, Japan, China, Mexico | 18–20 × 8–10 | ||
| C. subglobisporus R.L. Zhao, Desjardin & K.D. Hyde (2008) [43] | Northern Thailand | Ivory-coloured fruiting bodies covered with shaggy hairs, plications on the inner surface of the peridium and subglobose basidiospores. | ||
| C. triplex Lloyd (1906) | West Indies, Florida, Venezuela, Hawaii, Philippines, Thailand | 5–6 × 5 | Outer surface smooth, covered with scabrous hairs, inner surface smooth, silvery white; peridioles 2 mm with very thin tunica. | 16–22 × 12–14 ellipsoid [44] |
| L. triplex (threefold) | ||||
| C. yunnanensis B. Liu & Y.M. Li (1989) | China | 14.5–22.5 × 10.5–18 | ||
The Boletaceae are a family of mushroom-forming fungi, primarily characterised by small pores on the spore-bearing hymenial surface, instead of gills as are found in most agarics. Nearly as widely distributed as the agarics, the family is renowned for hosting some prime edible species highly sought after by mushroom hunters worldwide, such as the cep or king bolete . A number of rare or threatened species are also present in the family, that have become the focus of increasing conservation concerns. As a whole, the typical members of the family are commonly known as boletes.
Cyathus striatus, commonly known as the fluted bird's nest, is a common saprobic bird's nest fungus with a widespread distribution throughout temperate regions of the world. This fungus resembles a miniature bird's nest with numerous tiny "eggs"; the eggs, or peridioles, are actually lens-shaped bodies that contain spores. C. striatus can be distinguished from most other bird's nest fungi by its hairy exterior and grooved inner walls. Although most frequently found growing on dead wood in open forests, it also grows on wood chip mulch in urban areas. The fruiting bodies are encountered from summer until early winter. The color and size of this species can vary somewhat, but they are typically less than a centimeter wide and tall, and grey or brown in color. Another common name given to C. striatus, splash cups, alludes to the method of spore dispersal: the sides of the cup are angled such that falling drops of water can dislodge the peridioles and eject them from the cup. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin stria, meaning "with fine ridges or grooves".
Crucibulum is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of falling drops of rain. The "eggs" inside the bird's nests are hard waxy shells containing spores, and tend to stick to whatever nearby herbage they land on, thus increasing the odds of being consumed and dispersed by herbivorous animals. Members of this genus are saprobic, obtaining nutrients from dead organic matter, and are typically found growing on decayed wood and wood debris. The three known Crucibulum species are distinguished from other genera of the Nidulariaceae by their relatively simple funiculus – a cord of hyphae that connects the peridiole to the exterior of the bird's nest.
Nidularia is a genus of nine species of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird nests. The name comes from the Latin nidus meaning nest. The related genus Mycocalia was segregated from Nidularia in 1961 based on differences in the microscopic structure of the peridium.
Nidula is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests, from which they derive their common name "bird's nest fungi". Originally described in 1902, the genus differs from the related genera Cyathus and Crucibulum by the absence of a cord that attaches the eggs to the inside of the fruit body. The life cycle of this genus allows it to reproduce both sexually, with meiosis, and asexually via spores. Species in this genus produce a number of bioactive compounds, including 4-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone, a major component of raspberry flavor and insect attractor used in pesticides.
Mycocalia is a genus of fungi in the family Nidulariaceae. Basidiocarps are minute and irregularly spherical. Each produces one or more peridioles which contain the spores and are released from the disintegrating fruit bodies at maturity. Species are usually found growing on herbaceous stems and other plant debris. The genus was originally described in 1961 by British mycologist J.T. Palmer and has a north temperate distribution.
Cyathus is a genus of fungi in the Nidulariaceae, which is a family collectively known as the bird's nest fungi. They are given this name as they resemble tiny bird's nests filled with "eggs" – structures large enough to have been mistaken in the past for seeds. However, these are now known to be reproductive structures containing spores. The "eggs", or peridioles, are firmly attached to the inner surface of this fruit body by an elastic cord of mycelia known as a funiculus. The 45 species are widely distributed throughout the world and some are found in most countries, although a few exist in only one or two locales. Cyathus stercoreus is considered endangered in a number of European countries. Some species of Cyathus are also known as splash cups, which refers to the fact that falling raindrops can knock the peridioles out of the open-cup fruit body. The internal and external surfaces of this cup may be ridged longitudinally ; this is one example of a taxonomic characteristic that has traditionally served to distinguish between species.
The peridium is the protective layer that encloses a mass of spores in fungi. This outer covering is a distinctive feature of gasteroid fungi.
Cyathus olla also known as the field bird's nest is a species of saprobic fungus in the genus Cyathus of the family Nidulariaceae. The fruit bodies resemble tiny bird's nests filled with "eggs" – spore-containing structures called peridioles. Like other bird's nest fungi, C. olla relies on the force of falling water to dislodge peridioles from fruiting bodies to eject and disperse their spores. The life cycle of this fungus allows it to reproduce both sexually, with meiosis, and asexually via spores. C. olla is a relatively common fungus, with a worldwide distribution. It is the subject of agricultural research to determine its potential as a means to accelerate the breakdown of crop residue, and reduce the population of plant pathogens. The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word olla, meaning "pot".
Cyathus stercoreus, commonly known as the dung-loving bird's nest or the dung bird's nest, is a species of fungus in the genus Cyathus, family Nidulariaceae. Like other species in the Nidulariaceae, the fruiting bodies of C. stercoreus resemble tiny bird's nests filled with eggs. The fruiting bodies are referred to as splash cups, because they are developed to use the force of falling drops of water to dislodge and disperse their spores. The species has a worldwide distribution, and prefers growing on dung, or soil containing dung; the specific epithet is derived from the Latin word stercorarius, meaning "of dung".
Cyathus helenae or Helena's bird's nest is a species of fungus in the genus Cyathus, family Nidulariaceae. Like other members of the Nidulariaceae, C. helenae resembles a tiny bird's nest filled with 'eggs'—spore-containing structures known as peridioles. It was initially described by mycologist Harold Brodie in 1965, who found it growing on mountain scree in Alberta, Canada. C. helenae's life cycle allows it to reproduce both sexually and asexually. One of the smaller species of Cyathus, C. helenae produces a number of chemically unique diterpenoid molecules known as cyathins. The specific epithet of this species was given by Brodie in tribute to his late wife Helen.
Harold Johnston Brodie was a Canadian mycologist, known for his contributions to the knowledge of the Nidulariaceae, or bird's nest fungi.
Limnoperdon is a fungal genus in the monotypic family Limnoperdaceae. The genus is also monotypic, as it contains a single species, the aquatic fungus Limnoperdon incarnatum. The species, described as new to science in 1976, produces fruit bodies that lack specialized structures such as a stem, cap and gills common in mushrooms. Rather, the fruit bodies—described as aquatic or floating puffballs—are small balls of loosely interwoven hyphae. The balls float on the surface of the water above submerged twigs. Experimental observations on the development of the fruit body, based on the growth on the fungus in pure culture, suggest that a thin strand of mycelium tethers the ball above water while it matures. Fruit bodies start out as a tuft of hyphae, then become cup-shaped, and eventually enclose around a single chamber that contains reddish spores. Initially discovered in a marsh in the state of Washington, the fungus has since been collected in Japan, South Africa, and Canada.
Micropsalliota is a genus of small agaric fungi in the family Agaricaceae. The genus contains about 60 species, most of which are found in tropical areas.
The Nidulariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Commonly known as the bird's nest fungi, their fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. As they are saprobic, feeding on decomposing organic matter, they are often seen growing on decaying wood and in soils enriched with wood chips or bark mulch; they have a widespread distribution in most ecological regions. The five genera within the family, namely, Crucibulum, Cyathus, Mycocalia, Nidula, and Nidularia, are distinguished from each other by differences in morphology and peridiole structure; more recently, phylogenetic analysis and comparison of DNA sequences is guiding new decisions in the taxonomic organization of this family.
Spongiforma is a genus of sponge-like fungi in the family Boletaceae. Newly described in 2009, the genus contains two species: S. thailandica and S. squarepantsii. The type species S. thailandica is known only from Khao Yai National Park in central Thailand, where it grows in soil in old-growth forests dominated by dipterocarp trees. The rubbery fruit bodies, which has a strong odour of coal-tar similar to Tricholoma sulphureum, consists of numerous internal cavities lined with spore-producing tissue. S. squarepantsii, described as new to science in 2011, is found in Malaysia. It produces sponge-like, rubbery orange fruit bodies with a fruity or musky odour. These fruit bodies will—like a sponge—resume their original shape if water is squeezed out. The origin of the specific name derives from its perceived resemblance to the cartoon character SpongeBob SquarePants. Apart from differences in distribution, S. squarepantsii differs from S. thailandica in its colour, odour, and spore structure.
Calostoma cinnabarinum is a species of gasteroid fungus in the family Sclerodermataceae, and is the type species of the genus Calostoma. It is known by several common names, including stalked puffball-in-aspic and gelatinous stalked-puffball. The fruit body has a distinctive color and overall appearance, featuring a layer of yellowish jelly surrounding a bright red, spherical head approximately 2 centimeters (0.8 in) in diameter atop a red or yellowish brown spongy stipe 1.5 to 4 cm tall. The innermost layer of the head is the gleba, containing clear or slightly yellowish elliptical spores, measuring 14–20 micrometers (µm) long by 6–9 µm across. The spore surface features a pattern of small pits, producing a net-like appearance. A widely distributed species, it grows naturally in eastern North America, Central America, northeastern South America, and East Asia. C. cinnabarinum grows on the ground in deciduous forests, where it forms mycorrhizal associations with oaks.
Clavulinopsis fusiformis, commonly known as golden spindles, spindle-shaped yellow coral, or spindle-shaped fairy club, is a species of coral fungus in the family Clavariaceae.
Pholiota nubigena, commonly known as the gastroid pholiota or the bubble gum fungus, is a species of secotioid fungus in the family Strophariaceae. It is found in mountainous areas of the western United States, where it grows on rotting conifer wood, often fir logs. It fruits in spring, often under snow, and early summer toward the end of the snowmelt period in high mountain forests. Fruit bodies appear similar to unopened mushrooms, measuring 1–4 centimetres tall with 1–2.4 cm diameter caps that are whitish to brownish. They have a short but distinct whitish stipe that extend through the internal spore mass (gleba) of the fruit body into the cap. The gleba consists of irregular chambers made of contorted gills that are brownish in color. A whitish, cottony partial veil is present in young specimens, but it often disappears in age and does not leave a ring on the stipe.
Nidula shingbaensis is a rare species of bird's nest fungus in the family Agaricaceae. Found in the north district of Sikkim (India), where it grows on small fallen twigs of Bhutan fir, it was described as new to science in 2013. It has a peridium measuring 6–9 mm tall with a mouth diameter of 5–7 mm. The peridium contains up to 40 small "eggs" (peridioles) measuring 0.9–1.3 mm in diameter. The peridioles are filled with broadly ellipsoid to elongated spores that are 6.9–8.3–9.8 by 4.9–5.4–6.1 μm. Measuring 650–720 μm thick, the peridium comprises six distinct tissue layers—a feature that is unique in the genus Nidula.