Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station is located on the West Coast of Ireland in Carna, and is one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world.[1] The stations location is highly important as it is far away from neighbouring cities to ensure no pollutants interfere with recordings, and its location is also highly important as it is ideal for studying the atmosphere under Northern Hemispheric and European conditions.[1] The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and a European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) supersite.[2] Mace Head research and monitor the climate and atmospheric composition, focusing on aerosol-cloud interactions and mercury readings.
Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station was established in 1987, and is still in operation.[3] The current station manager is Mr Gerry Spain, who has held this position for the last 20 years.[4] The station PI/Contact is Professor Simon O’Doherty, who runs trace gas measurement at the University of Bristol, and the station CO-PI is Professor Peter Simmonds.[3] Mace Head is funded by the UK Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) and NASA.[3]
The station has the dual status of being a World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Global Atmosphere Watch (GMO) station and a European Monitoring and Evaluation Program (EMEP) supersite.[2] It is operated by both the National University of Ireland Galway's School of Physics and the University's Ryan Institute Centre for Climate and Air Pollution studies.[2]
The National University of Ireland Galway’s School of Physics has operated at Mace Head for 50 years, and Mace Head Station is one of the most important Global Atmosphere Watch stations in the Northern Hemisphere.[3]
With funding from research projects, it is the NUIG personnel; the students and post-doctoral fellows who are responsible for the operation and maintenance of equipment at Mace Head station.[3] The NUIG provide the costs used for consumables such as filters, as well as the transport of chemical analysis samples to the Glasnevin, Dublin laboratory.[3]
Location
The Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station is located on the West Coast of Ireland in Carna, County Galway.[1] This Northern Hemisphere station has westerly exposure to the North Atlantic Ocean, with coordinates of 53°20’ N and 9°54’ W.[3] This is a clean sector from 180 degrees to 300 degrees, and it is approximately 60% of the air that is measured by the site arrives through this clean sector.[5] It has a time zone of UTC+1 or GMT+1, with 1200mm of annual rainfall, 10°C average air temperature, and a sea temperature of 10°C in winter and 15°C in summer.[3] Peat lands and wetlands surround the station, and its location is approximately 90m from the shoreline.[3]
To reduce pollutants influencing and interfering with measurements taken at the site, Mace Head is strategically located approximately 88km West of Galway city.[3] Similarly, the clean sector surrounding the site also includes three small close surrounding islands, but they are uninhabited and thus do not influence the measurements taken at the site.[3] Furthermore, the main Atlantic shipping routes are over 150km away, and the transatlantic air corridors are over 80km away, thus ensuring cleaner readings.[6]
The location of Mace Head makes it an ideal site for measuring marine biogenic gases, aerosol production and chemistry, and long-range transport of air pollution.[7] It is also ideal for studying the atmosphere under Northern Hemispheric conditions as well as European conditions during eastern winds.[1]
There are numerous facilities on the site used for recording and analysing data. These facilities consist of a 10m meteorological tower, an aluminium walk-up tower and a cargo container laboratory, and three laboratory buildings; one that’s 300m from the shore, and two that are 90m from the shore.[8]
History
Research and operations began during 1978 to 1983 in Adrigole, County Cork.[3] However, this was shut down and the operations officially moved to the Mace Head site in 1987.[3] It was from 1987 that measurements of chloroform, methane and trichloro trifluoroethane began, and in 1995 carbon monoxide and hydrogen began.[3] In October 1994 the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE) network installed their first automated gas chromatography-mass spectrometer.[3] It was later replaced by the Agilent 5973 MS in 1998, and in December 2004 was retired and the Medusa gas chromatography mass spectrometry system (Medusa-GCMS) installed.[3]
Mission Statement and Research Themes
The Mace Head station has numerous research aims and themes, such as monitoring climate change, atmospheric composition, aerosol-cloud interactions, air quality, atmosphere-ocean exchange and climate-ecosystem interactions.[9] Their mission statement states that their goal is to monitor trends of atmospheric composition change, monitor climate variables and air pollution, and research atmospheric composition and its impact on climate change.[6] Mace Head also wants to promote education within the topics of climate, air pollution, and the atmosphere.[6]
Instruments
Mace Head uses a variety of instruments to record their findings. Some of these instruments include a ceilometer and doppler lidar, both used to detect clouds and aerosols, a cloud radar, microwave radiometer and a nano-scanning mobility particle sizer.[2] Mace Head also has a gas chromatography mass spectrometry system (Medusa-GCMS), which was installed in December 2004 and measures trace gas species.[3]
Mace Head also has an automated atomic fluorescence analyzer (AFS) and an automated atomic absorption analyzer (AAS), both used to measure time resolved mercury measurements.[10] There is also a cavity ring-down spectrometer (CRDS) which is used to measure carbon dioxide and methane.[11] There is also a gas chromatorgraph-electron capture detector (GC-ECD) to measure sulphur hexafluoride and nitrous oxide, and a gas chromatophraph-multi detector (GC-MD) to measure carbon monoxide and hydrogen.[12]
Measurements and Recordings
Mace Head is renowned for their atmospheric chemistry research, as they measure numerous meteorological elements such as wind speed and direction, temperature, rainfall, and humidity.[8] They also record and measure greenhouse gases, UV levels, and solar radiation.[7] Mace Head began measuring the ozone since 1988, chloroform, methane and trichloro trifluoroethane in 1897, and carbon monoxide and hydrogen began in 1995.[3]
Mark Lunt measured chlorofluorobarbon (CFC), and Jurgita Ovadnevaite reported on the aerosol-cloud and climate interactions at Mace head, specifically the major advances in sea salt aerosols.[13] Observations of methyl chloroform at Mace Head have also been useful in the understanding of methane removal from the atmosphere, which is caused by trends in atmospheric hydroxyl radical concentrations.[13]
Whilst Mace Head does measure numerous atmospheric compositions, they mainly focuses on the measurements of aerosols and mercury readings, but also observed and measures storms and strong winds.
Storm and Wind Speeds
Mace Head measures storms and strong winds that pass through specifically during winter; storm season. One such storm measured was Storm Ali, the first storm of the 2018-2019 season.[14] Storm Ali arrived at the northern areas of the British Isles on the 19th of September, and brought heavy rain and strong wind to Northern Ireland and Western Scotland.[14] The highest recorded gust was at Cairngorm Summit with 105mph, and Mace Head captured one of the highest recordings at 90mph.[14] Storm Ali impacted and disrupted Ireland immensely, causing power outages, travel disruption, damage to buildings and transport, as well as two deaths.[14]
Storm Callum was the third storm of the 2018-2019 season, impacting the UK during the 12th and 13 October.[15] Callum brought windy weather, rainfall, power outages, and since there were high tides the winds caused large waves thus many sea walls fell, resulting in coastal flooding. Mace Head measured wind gusts of 72mph, with maximum gust speeds reading 86mph in Capel Curig.[15]
Additionally, Storm Fionn was also measured at Mace Head. It was named by Met Eireann, and was the seventh storm of the 2018-2019 winter.[16] It arrived in Ireland on the 16th of January and was observed and measured not only at Mace Head, but also other sites such as Sherkin Ireland, Valentia Observatory, St Mary's Airport and Aberdaron. The highest recorded gust was measured at Mace Head, with a wind speed of 85mph.[16] Storm Fionn did not have as significant disruption to Ireland as Storm Ali created, with the only impacts being traffic disruption and snowfall.[16]
Other storms measured at Mace Head include, Storm Erik at 76mph and Storm Jake at 83mph.[17][18]
Aerosols
Air quality modelling is used to highlight the relationship between atmospheric concentrations, emissions, meteorology and other factors.[19] These atmospheric measurements are useful in detailing trace gas concentrations and various atmospheric aerosols.[19]
Aerosols are liquid particles suspended in the air, and they influence the climate by scattering light and affecting clouds, thus they work in opposition to greenhouse gases and cause cooling.[20] Natural aerosols include sulfates, ammonium salts and sea salts.[20] Mace Head has one of the most advanced aerosol monitoring sites in Europe, providing important and vital ash data during the Icelandic volcano eruption during April and May.[19] The 14th of April, 2010 saw the Icelandic’s Eyjafjallajokull volcano erupt, with volcanic ash rising up to 9km into the air.[19] The weather conditions worsened for central Europe, with pollutants remaining for the next 6 days.[19] The vertical volcanic ash plume had a peak of 3.5km and was intercepted Mace Head 33 times over a 6 week period, with approximately three of these events lasting more than 12hrs in duration, thus displaying it to be an incredibly strong ash plume.[19]
Mace Head uses a doppler cloud lidar and a ceilometer to detect clouds and aerosols about fifteen meters above ground level. This detection and sampling of aerosols is based on wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and rain presence. For ideal collection of samples, there should be a low wind speed, <95% humidity and no rain present. Furthermore, more dependable samples are taken over multiple days.[21]
There are five main parameters that are routinely measured at Global Atmosphere Watch stations. These are aerosol optical depth, absorption, scattering, mass, and chemistry.[21] Mass and chemistry of aerosols have not yet been measured at Mace Head but will be recorded over the coming years.[21]
The cloud radar can also be used to detect non-spherical and depolarizing volcanic ash particles.[2] Thus, Mace Head is perfect for detecting volcanic aerosol plumes which could be used to alert locations with volcanoes nearby, namely Ireland and Europe, about possible eruptions.[2]
Mercury
The Mace Head station has been recording mercury (Hg) since 1995, and has thus been one of the longest running mercury recording stations in the world.[22]Mercury data recording and collection is vital as it is a global environmental pollutant emitted both naturally and from man-made sources.
Evidence suggests that mercury emissions from man made sources are as great as those originating from natural sources, thus it is the man-made emitted mercury that is contributing to an increase in environmental exposure to mercury.[10]
Long term and continuous measurements are necessary as it details whether a fluctuation is normal or something unusual, thus allowing one to monitor background levels of total gaseous mercury.[22] Continuous measurements of mercury are taken within a 15 minute time resolution, and is one of the first stations to generate total gaseous measurements with such a high time resolution.[23] Furthermore, long term monitoring can provide direct evidence of temporal trends, as mercury has an atmospheric residence time of approximately 1 year.[10] Measurements recorded at Mace Head display that background levels of mercury in the Northern Hemisphere are approximately 1.7ng/m3 with a seasonal variation of approximately 20%.[10]
There are five European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) monitoring stations in Ireland, with Mace Head being the site situated in West Ireland.[24] The remaining four sites are Malin Head Glenveagh in the North, Valentia Observatory in the South, Carnsore Point and Johnstown Castle in the East and Oak Park located inland.[24] Each of these EMEP sites have their chemical analysis undertaken by the Met Eireann at their Dublin Laboratory in Glasnevin.[24]
Related Research Articles
Envisat is a large inactive Earth-observing satellite which is still in orbit and now considered as space debris. Operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), it was the world's largest civilian Earth observation satellite.
The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth's atmosphere, particularly the protective ozone layer. The 5,900-kilogram (13,000 lb) satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991. It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 kilometers (370 mi), with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees.
This is a list of meteorology topics. The terms relate to meteorology, the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere that focuses on weather processes and forecasting.
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research or NIWA, is a Crown Research Institute of New Zealand. Established in 1992, NIWA conducts research across a broad range of disciplines in the environmental sciences. It also maintains nationally and, in some cases, internationally important environmental monitoring networks, databases, and collections.
The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) is a worldwide system established by the World Meteorological Organization – a United Nations agency – to monitor trends in the Earth's atmosphere. It arose out of concerns for the state of the atmosphere in the 1960s.
The Max Planck Institute for Chemistry is a non-university research institute under the auspices of the Max Planck Society in Mainz. It was created as a Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in 1911.
The Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute is the Dutch national weather forecasting service, which has its headquarters in De Bilt, in the province of Utrecht, central Netherlands.
Over the last two centuries many environmental chemical observations have been made from a variety of ground-based, airborne, and orbital platforms and deposited in databases. Many of these databases are publicly available. All of the instruments mentioned in this article give online public access to their data. These observations are critical in developing our understanding of the Earth's atmosphere and issues such as climate change, ozone depletion and air quality. Some of the external links provide repositories of many of these datasets in one place. For example, the Cambridge Atmospheric Chemical Database, is a large database in a uniform ASCII format. Each observation is augmented with the meteorological conditions such as the temperature, potential temperature, geopotential height, and equivalent PV latitude.
The atmospheric infrared sounder (AIRS) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA's Aqua satellite, launched on May 4, 2002. The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting.
Meteorological instruments, including meteorological sensors, are the equipment used to find the state of the atmosphere at a given time. Each science has its own unique sets of laboratory equipment. Meteorology, however, is a science which does not use much laboratory equipment but relies more on on-site observation and remote sensing equipment. In science, an observation, or observable, is an abstract idea that can be measured and for which data can be taken. Rain was one of the first quantities to be measured historically. Two other accurately measured weather-related variables are wind and humidity. Many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure atmospheric variables.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the field of Meteorology.
The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity (AO) instruments on board the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Envisat satellite.
Greenhouse gas monitoring is the direct measurement of greenhouse gas emissions and levels. There are several different methods of measuring carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, including infrared analyzing and manometry. Methane and nitrous oxide are measured by other instruments. Greenhouse gases are measured from space such as by the Orbiting Carbon Observatory and networks of ground stations such as the Integrated Carbon Observation System.
SAGE III on ISS is the fourth generation of a series of NASA Earth-observing instruments, known as the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment. The first SAGE III instrument was launched on a Russian Meteor-3M satellite. The recently revised SAGE III was mounted to the International Space Station where it uses the unique vantage point of ISS to make long-term measurements of ozone, aerosols, water vapor, and other gases in Earth's atmosphere.
The Amazon Tall Tower Observatory or ATTO is a scientific research facility in the Amazon rainforest of Brazil. The site's infrastructure includes a 325-metre-tall (1,066 ft) tower that extends far above the forest canopy and two 80-metre (260 ft) towers that allow researchers to collect samples from the soil surface to above the forest canopy. Additionally, there are container-labs, a base camp and nearby sites for studying vegetation and soil processes. The tall research tower is one meter taller than the Eiffel Tower and is currently the tallest structure in South America. All towers are equipped with a broad range of instruments to measure chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere, such as greenhouse gas concentrations, aerosols and meteorological data.
Atmospheric lidar is a class of instruments that uses laser light to study atmospheric properties from the ground up to the top of the atmosphere. Such instruments have been used to study, among other, atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds, and temperature.
The Dr. Neil Trivett Global Atmosphere Watch Observatory is an atmospheric baseline station operated by Environment and Climate Change Canada located about 6 km (3.7 mi) south south-west of Alert, Nunavut, on the north-eastern tip of Ellesmere Island, about 800 km (500 mi) south of the geographic North Pole.
This glossary of meteorology is a list of terms and concepts relevant to meteorology and atmospheric science, their sub-disciplines, and related fields.
The North Atlantic Aerosols and Marine Ecosystems Study (NAAMES) was a five-year scientific research program that investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence atmospheric aerosols, clouds, and climate. The study focused on the sub-arctic region of the North Atlantic Ocean, which is the site of one of Earth's largest recurring phytoplankton blooms. The long history of research in this location, as well as relative ease of accessibility, made the North Atlantic an ideal location to test prevailing scientific hypotheses in an effort to better understand the role of phytoplankton aerosol emissions on Earth's energy budget.
Colin Dermot O'Dowd is an Irish physicist and atmospheric scientist.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
Ireland 
