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Mycoplasma genitalium, is a sexually transmitted, small and pathogenic bacterium that lives on the skin cells of the urinary and genital tracts in humans. Medical reports published in 2007 and 2015 state Mgen is becoming increasingly common. Resistance to multiple antibiotics is becoming prevalent, including to azithromycin, which until recently was the most reliable treatment. The bacteria was first isolated from the urogenital tract of humans in 1981, and was eventually identified as a new species of Mycoplasma in 1983. It can cause negative health effects in men and women. It also increases the risk factor for HIV spread with higher occurrences in those previously treated with the azithromycin antibiotics.
Pelvic inflammatory disease, also known as pelvic inflammatory disorder (PID), is an infection of the upper part of the female reproductive system, namely the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, and inside of the pelvis. Often, there may be no symptoms. Signs and symptoms, when present, may include lower abdominal pain, vaginal discharge, fever, burning with urination, pain with sex, bleeding after sex, or irregular menstruation. Untreated PID can result in long-term complications including infertility, ectopic pregnancy, chronic pelvic pain, and cancer.
Streptococcus pyogenes is a species of Gram-positive, aerotolerant bacterium in the genus Streptococcus. These bacteria are extracellular, and made up of non-motile and non-sporing cocci. It is clinically important for humans. It is an infrequent, but usually pathogenic, part of the skin microbiota. It is the predominant species harboring the Lancefield group A antigen, and is often called group A Streptococcus (GAS). However, both Streptococcus dysgalactiae and the Streptococcus anginosus group can possess group A antigen. Group A streptococci when grown on blood agar typically produces small zones of beta-hemolysis, a complete destruction of red blood cells. It is thus also called group A (beta-hemolytic) Streptococcus (GABHS), and it can make colonies greater than 0.5 mm in size.
Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum, the lining of the inner wall of the abdomen and cover of the abdominal organs. Symptoms may include severe pain, swelling of the abdomen, fever, or weight loss. One part or the entire abdomen may be tender. Complications may include shock and acute respiratory distress syndrome.
Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall around their cell membranes. This characteristic makes them naturally resistant to antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of "walking" pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and M. genitalium, which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. Mycoplasma species are the smallest bacterial cells yet discovered, can survive without oxygen, and come in various shapes. For example, M. genitalium is flask-shaped, while M. pneumoniae is more elongated. Hundreds of mycoplasma species infect animals.
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide composed of O-antigen, outer core and inner core joined by a covalent bond; they are found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. The term lipooligosaccharide ("LOS") is used to refer to a low-molecular-weight form of bacterial lipopolysaccharides.
Mycoplasma hominis is a species of bacteria in the genus Mycoplasma. M. hominis has the ability to penetrate the interior of human cells. Along with ureaplasmas, mycoplasmas are the smallest free-living organisms known.
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a very small bacterium in the class Mollicutes. It is a human pathogen that causes the disease mycoplasma pneumonia, a form of atypical bacterial pneumonia related to cold agglutinin disease. M. pneumoniae is characterized by the absence of a peptidoglycan cell wall and resulting resistance to many antibacterial agents. The persistence of M. pneumoniae infections even after treatment is associated with its ability to mimic host cell surface composition.
Mycoplasmataceae is a family of bacteria in the order Mycoplasmatales. This family consists of the genera Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma.
Shigella flexneri is a species of Gram-negative bacteria in the genus Shigella that can cause diarrhea in humans. Several different serogroups of Shigella are described; S. flexneri belongs to group B. S. flexneri infections can usually be treated with antibiotics, although some strains have become resistant. Less severe cases are not usually treated because they become more resistant in the future. Shigella are closely related to Escherichia coli, but can be differentiated from E.coli based on pathogenicity, physiology and serology.
Endometritis is inflammation of the inner lining of the uterus (endometrium). Symptoms may include fever, lower abdominal pain, and abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge. It is the most common cause of infection after childbirth. It is also part of spectrum of diseases that make up pelvic inflammatory disease.
Antigenic variation or antigenic alteration refers to the mechanism by which an infectious agent such as a protozoan, bacterium or virus alters the proteins or carbohydrates on its surface and thus avoids a host immune response, making it one of the mechanisms of antigenic escape. It is related to phase variation. Antigenic variation not only enables the pathogen to avoid the immune response in its current host, but also allows re-infection of previously infected hosts. Immunity to re-infection is based on recognition of the antigens carried by the pathogen, which are "remembered" by the acquired immune response. If the pathogen's dominant antigen can be altered, the pathogen can then evade the host's acquired immune system. Antigenic variation can occur by altering a variety of surface molecules including proteins and carbohydrates. Antigenic variation can result from gene conversion, site-specific DNA inversions, hypermutation, or recombination of sequence cassettes. The result is that even a clonal population of pathogens expresses a heterogeneous phenotype. Many of the proteins known to show antigenic or phase variation are related to virulence.
Interleukin-17A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL17A gene. In rodents, IL-17A used to be referred to as CTLA8, after the similarity with a viral gene.
Ureaplasma parvum is a species of Ureaplasma, a genus of bacteria belonging to the family Mycoplasmataceae.
Hysterosalpingography (HSG), also known as uterosalpingography, is a radiologic procedure to investigate the shape of the uterine cavity and the shape and patency of the fallopian tubes. This means it is a special x-ray using dye to look at the womb (uterus) and Fallopian tubes. It injects a radio-opaque material into the cervical canal and usually fluoroscopy with image intensification. A normal result shows the filling of the uterine cavity and the bilateral filling of the fallopian tube with the injection material. To demonstrate tubal rupture, spillage of the material into the peritoneal cavity needs to be observed. It has vital role in treatment of infertility especially in case of fallopian tube blockade.
Immunity Related Guanosine Triphosphatases or IRGs are proteins activated as part of an early immune response. IRGs have been described in various mammals but are most well characterized in mice. IRG activation in most cases is induced by an immune response and leads to clearance of certain pathogens.
Chronic Mycoplasma pneumonia and Chlamydia pneumonia infections are associated with the onset and exacerbation of asthma. These microbial infections result in chronic lower airway inflammation, impaired mucociliary clearance, an increase in mucous production and eventually asthma. Furthermore, children who experience severe viral respiratory infections early in life have a high possibility of having asthma later in their childhood. These viral respiratory infections are mostly caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and human rhinovirus (HRV). Although RSV infections increase the risk of asthma in early childhood, the association between asthma and RSV decreases with increasing age. HRV on the other hand is an important cause of bronchiolitis and is strongly associated with asthma development. In children and adults with established asthma, viral upper respiratory tract infections (URIs), especially HRVs infections, can produce acute exacerbations of asthma. Thus, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and human rhinoviruses are microbes that play a major role in non-atopic asthma.
Tubal factor infertility (TFI) is female infertility caused by diseases, obstructions, damage, scarring, congenital malformations or other factors which impede the descent of a fertilized or unfertilized ovum into the uterus through the Fallopian tubes and prevents a normal pregnancy and full term birth. Tubal factors cause 25-30% of infertility cases. Tubal factor is one complication of Chlamydia trachomatis infection in women.
Chlamydia research is the systematic study of the organisms in the taxonomic group of bacteria Chlamydiae, the diagnostic procedures to treat infections, the disease chlamydia, infections caused by the organisms, the epidemiology of infection and the development of vaccines. The process of research can include the participation of many researchers who work in collaboration from separate organizations, governmental entities and universities.
Ureaplasma urealyticum is a type of bacteria that can cause infection of the urinary tract and vagina. It can be passed from mother to infant during birth, or be sexually transmitted. Ureaplasma urealyticum can found in a majority of sexually active people, most of whom are asymptomatic. It can also be found in cultures in cases of pelvic inflammatory disease. It is not a commensal of the healthy uterine or amniotic microbiome. Infection with U. urealyticum can contribute to neonatal infection and negative birth outcomes.
References
- ↑ Gallego, Pablo; Planell, Raquel; Benach, Jordi; Querol, Enrique; Perez-Pons, Joseph A.; Reverter, David (October 17, 2012). "Structural Characterization of the Enzymes Composing the Arginine Deiminase Pathway in Mycoplasma penetrans". PLOS ONE. 7 (10): e47886. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...747886G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047886 . PMC 3474736 . PMID 23082227 . Retrieved 11 November 2014.
- ↑ Lo, S.-C.; Hayes, M. M.; Tully, J. G.; Wang, R. Y.-H.; Kotani, H.; Pierce, P. F.; Rose, D. L.; Shih, J. W.-K. (1992). "Mycoplasma penetrans sp. nov., from the Urogenital Tract of Patients with AIDS". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 42 (3): 357–364. doi: 10.1099/00207713-42-3-357 . ISSN 0020-7713. PMID 1503969.
- ↑ Yáñez A, Cedillo L, Neyrolles O, et al. (1999). "Mycoplasma penetrans bacteremia and primary antiphospholipid syndrome". Emerging Infectious Diseases . 5 (1): 164–7. doi:10.3201/eid0501.990122. PMC 2627698 . PMID 10081687.
- ↑ Ljubin-Sternak, Sunčanica; Meštrović, Tomislav (2014). "Chlamydia trachomatis and Genital Mycoplasmas: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Healthogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health". Journal of Pathogens. 2014: 183167. doi: 10.1155/2014/183167 . PMC 4295611 . PMID 25614838.
- 1 2 Sasaki, Y.; Ishikawa, J.; Yamashita, A.; Oshima, K.; Kenri, T.; Furuya, K.; Hattori, M (2002-12-01). "The complete genomic sequence of Mycoplasma penetrans, an intracellular bacterial pathogen in humans". Nucleic Acids Research. 30 (23): 5293–5300. doi:10.1093/nar/gkf667. ISSN 1362-4962. PMC 137978 . PMID 12466555.
- ↑ Horino, A.; Sasaki, Y.; Sasaki, T.; Kenri, T. (2003-01-01). "Multiple Promoter Inversions Generate Surface Antigenic Variation in Mycoplasma penetrans". Journal of Bacteriology. 185 (1): 231–242. doi:10.1128/jb.185.1.231-242.2003. ISSN 0021-9193. PMC 141813 . PMID 12486060.
- ↑ Logunov, D Y; Scheblyakov, D V; Zubkova, O V; Shmarov, M M; Rakovskaya, I V; Gurova, K V; Tararova, N D; Burdelya, L G; Naroditsky, B S (2008-04-14). "Mycoplasma infection suppresses p53, activates NF-κB and cooperates with oncogenic Ras in rodent fibroblast transformation". Oncogene. 27 (33): 4521–4531. doi:10.1038/onc.2008.103. ISSN 0950-9232. PMC 4526267 . PMID 18408766.
- ↑ Cao, Shuyan; Shen, Dandan; Wang, Yadong; Li, Linxi; Zhou, Liping; Wang, Yuxue (2017-07-10). "Potential malignant transformation in the gastric mucosa of immunodeficient mice with persistent Mycoplasma penetrans infection". PLOS ONE. 12 (7): e0180514. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1280514C. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180514 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5503272 . PMID 28692662.
- ↑ Ljubin-Sternak, Suncanica; Mestrovic, Tomislav (2014). "Review: Chlamydia trachonmatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health". Journal of Pathogens. 2014 (183167): 183167. doi: 10.1155/2014/183167 . PMC 4295611 . PMID 25614838.
