The committee's final report was released in June 1919. It reported on German propaganda, Bolshevism, and other "un-American activities" in the United States and on likely effects of communism's implementation in the United States. It described German, but not communist, propaganda efforts. The committee's report and hearings were instrumental in fostering anti-Bolshevik opinion.
The committee was authorized by Senate Resolution 307 on September 19, 1918, to investigate charges against the United States Brewers Association (USBA) and allied interests. Brewing institutions had been largely founded by German immigrants in the mid-19th century, who brought with them knowledge and techniques for brewing beer.[5][6] The committee interpreted this mission to mean a general probe into German propaganda and pro-German activities in the United States.[7] Hearings were mandated after A. Mitchell Palmer, the federal government's Alien Property Custodian responsible for German-owned property in the US, testified in September 1918 that the USBA and the rest of the overwhelmingly German[8] liquor industry harbored pro-German sentiments.[9] He stated that "German brewers of America, in association with the United States Brewers' Association" had attempted "to buy a great newspaper" and "control the government of State and Nation", had generally been "unpatriotic", and had "pro-German sympathies".[6]
"We do not want to make this proceeding a mere sewer or conduit into which may be dumped all the accusations and charges and libelous statements, or suspicions, of various persons throughout the United States."
Hearings began September 27, 1918, shortly before the end of World War I.[6] Nearly four dozen witnesses testified.[11] Many were agents of the Bureau of Investigations (BOI), the predecessor of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The agents, controversially[12][13] and usually erroneously,[12] implicated high-profile American citizens as pro-German, using the fallacy of guilt by association.[14] For example, the Bureau chief labeled some people pro-German because they had insubstantial and non-ideological[15] acquaintance with German agents.[12] Others were accused because their names were discovered in the notebooks of suspected German agents, of whom they had never heard.[12]
Many attacked the BOI's actions. The committee heard testimony that it had not conducted basic background checks of the accused and had not read source material it presented to the committee.[15] Committee members criticized its testimony as "purely hearsay".[13][16]
On February 4, 1919, the Senate unanimously passed Senator Thomas J. Walsh's[18] Senate Resolution 439, expanding the committee's investigations to include "any efforts being made to propagate in this country the principles of any party exercising or claiming to exercise any authority in Russia" and "any effort to incite the overthrow of the Government of this country".[19] This decision followed months of sensational daily press coverage[20] of revolutionary events abroad and Bolshevik meetings and events in the United States,[21] which increased anti-radical public opinion.[22] Reports that some of these meetings were attended by Congressmen caused further outrage.[21] One meeting in particular, held at the Poli Theater in Washington, D.C., was widely controversial because of a speech given by Albert Rhys Williams, a popular Congregationalist minister,[23] who allegedly said, "America sooner or later is going to accept the Soviet Government."[24]
Archibald E. Stevenson, a New York attorney with ties to the Justice Department, likely a "volunteer spy",[25] testified on January 22, 1919, during the German phase of the subcommittee's work. He said that anti-war and anti-draftactivism during World War I, which he described as "pro-German" activity, had now transformed into propaganda "developing sympathy for the Bolshevik movement.".[26] The United States' wartime enemy, though defeated, had exported an ideology that ruled Russia and threatened America anew. "The Bolsheviki movement is a branch of the revolutionary socialism of Germany. It had its origin in the philosophy of Marx and its leaders were Germans."[27] He cited the propaganda efforts of John Reed and gave many examples from the foreign press. He told the senators, "We have found money coming into this country from Russia."[28] Stevenson has been described by historian Regin Schmidt as a "driving force" behind the growth of anti-Bolshevism in the United States.[29]
The final catalyst for the expansion of the investigation was the Seattle General Strike, which began the day before the Senate passed Resolution 439.[24] This confluence of events led members of Congress to believe that the alleged German-Bolshevist link and Bolshevist threat to the United States were real.[30]
Bolshevism hearings
"Senator OVERMAN: Do you agree with what has been stated here that the Russian people generally, 85 per cent of them, are ignorant like children and do not know anything except what their rights are, or what they claim to be their rights? Mr WILLIAMS: I think that probably not more than 50 per cent of the Russian people can read and write.[31]"
The Overman Committee's hearings on Bolshevism lasted from February 11 to March 10, 1919.[32] More than two dozen witnesses were interviewed.[33] About two-thirds were violently anti-Bolshevik and advocated for military intervention in Russia.[34] Some were refugees of the Russian diaspora—many former government officials[35]—who left Russia because of Bolshevism.[36] The overriding theme was the social chaos the Revolution had brought,[35] but three sub-themes were also frequent: anti-Americanism among American intelligentsia, the relationship between Jews and communist Russia, and the "nationalization" of women after the Soviet revolution.
Stevenson produced a list of 200—later reduced to 62—alleged communist professors in the United States.[30] Like lists of names provided during the German propaganda hearings, this list provoked an outcry.[37] Stevenson declared universities to be breeding grounds of sedition, and that institutions of higher learning were "festering masses of pure atheism" and "the grossest kind of materialism".[38]Ambassador to RussiaDavid R. Francis stated that the Bolsheviks were killing everybody "who wears a white collar or who is educated and who is not a Bolshevik."[39]
Another recurring theme at the hearings was the relationship between Jews and communists in Russia. One Methodist preacher stated that nineteen out of twenty communists were Jews;[40] others said the Red Army was composed mainly of former East Side New York Jews.[41] However, after criticism from Jewish organizations,[42] Senator Overman clarified that the committee was discussing "apostate" Jews only, defined by witness George Simons as "one who has given up the faith of his fathers or forefathers."[43]
A third frequent theme was the "free love" and "nationalization" of women allegedly occurring in Soviet Russia.[44] Witnesses described an orgy in which there was no "respect for virtuous women";[45] others who testified, including those who had been in Russia during the Revolution,[45] denied this.[46] After one witness read a Soviet decree saying that Russian women had the "right to choose from among men",[47] Senator Sterling threw up his hands and declared that this was a negation of "free love".[46] However, another decree was produced stating, "A girl having reached her eighteenth year is to be announced as the property of the state."[48]
The senators were particularly interested in how Bolshevism had united many disparate elements on the left, including anarchists and socialists of many types,[49] "providing a common platform for all these radical groups to stand on."[50] Senator Knute Nelson of Minnesota responded: "Then they have really rendered a service to the various classes of progressives and reformers that we have here in this country."[50] Other witnesses described the horrors of the revolution in Russia and speculated on the consequences of a comparable revolution in the United States: the imposition of atheism, the seizure of newspapers, assaults on banks and the abolition of the insurance industry. The senators heard various views of women in Russia, including claims that women were made the property of the state.[51]
Final report
A copy of the Overman Committee's final report reproduced by The New York Times on June 15, 1919
The committee's final report detailed its investigations into German propaganda, Bolshevism, and other "un-American activities" in the United States and predicted effects of communism's implementation in the United States.[53] It was endorsed unanimously. Released in June 1919,[52] it was over 35,000words long,[5] and was compiled by Major Edwin Lowry Humes.[53]
The committee did little to demonstrate the extent of communist activity in the United States.[34] In its analysis of what would happen if capitalism were overthrown and replaced by communism,[54] it warned of widespread misery and hunger, the confiscation of and nationalization of all property, and the beginning of "a program of terror, fear, extermination, and destruction."[55] Anti-Bolshevik public sentiment surged after release of the report and ensuing publicity.[22]
"The [Bolshevik] Government is founded upon class hatred, its avowed purpose is the extermination of all elements of society that are opposed to or are capable of opposing the Bolshevist Party. 'Merciless suppression' and 'extermination' of all classes except the present governing class are familiar slogans of the Bolsheviki, and confiscation is adopted as an essential instrument in the governmental formula."
The report described the communist system in Russia as "a reign of terror unparalleled in the history of modern civilization".[56] It concluded that instituting Marxism–Leninism in the United States would result in "the destruction of life and property", the deprivation "of the right to participate in affairs of government", and the "further suppress[ion]" of a "substantial rural portion of the population." Furthermore, there would be an "opening of the doors of all prisons and penitentiaries".[52] It would result in the "seizure and confiscation of the 22,896 newspapers and periodicals in the United States" and "complete control of all banking institutions and their assets". "One of the most appalling and far reaching consequences... would be found in the confiscation and liquidation of... life insurance companies." The report also criticized "the atheism that permeates the whole Russian dictatorship"; "they have denounced our religion and our God as 'lies'."[52]
Despite the report's rhetoric and the headlines it produced, the report contained little evidence of communist propaganda in the United States or its effect on American labor.[34]
Recommendations
The report's main recommendations included deporting alien radicals and enacting peacetime sedition laws.[57] Other recommendations included strict regulation of the manufacture, distribution, and possession of high explosives; control and regulation of foreign language publications,[58] and the creation of patriotic propaganda.[57]
Press reaction
The press reveled in the investigation and the final report, referring to the Russians as "assassins and madmen," "human scum," "crime mad," and "beasts."[59] The occasional testimony by some who viewed the Russian Revolution favorably lacked the punch of its critics. One extended headline in February read:[60]
Says Riffraff, Not the Toilers, Rule in Russia
American Manager of Great American Plant There Tells Experiences to Senators
Outsiders Seized Power
Came Back from Other Countries and are Growing Rich at People's Expense
Factories Being Ruined
60,000,000 Rubles Spent in Three Months at One Plant to Produce 400,000 Worth of Goods
Former Agent in Russia of Commerce Department Concludes his Story to Senators
Women are 'Nationalized'
Official Decrees Reveal Depths of Degradation to Which They are Subjected by Reds
Germans Profit by Chaos
Factories and Mills are Closed and the Machinery Sold to Them for a Song
On the release of the final report, newspapers printed sensational articles with headlines in capital letters: "Red Peril Here", "Plan Bloody Revolution", and "Want Washington Government Overturned".[62]
Criticism
Critics denounced the committee as a "propaganda apparatus" to stoke anti-German and anti-Soviet fears, feeding the Red Scare[63] and spreading misinformation about Soviet Russia.[32]
The committee attracted criticism from the public for its perceived overreach, and especially for publishing the names of those accused of association with communist organizations. One woman from Kentucky wrote to Senator Overman on behalf of her sister, who had been accused by Archibald Stevenson, criticizing the committee for its "brutal as well as stupid misuse of power" and "gross and cruel injustice to men and women the full peer in intellect, character and patriotism of any member of the United States Senate".[37] The committee was compared to "a witch hunt" in one exchange with a witness.[64]
The Overman Committee did not achieve any lasting reforms.[65] However, the panel's sensationalism played a decisive role in increasing America's fears during the Red Scare of 1919–20.[54] Its investigations served as a blueprint for the Department of Justice's anti-radical Palmer raids late in the year. These were led by Attorney General Palmer, whose testimony about German brewers had been the catalyst for the committee's creation.[57]
On May 1, 1919, a month after the committee's hearings ended, a bomb was mailed to Overman's home, one of a series of letter bombs sent to prominent Americans in the 1919 United States anarchist bombings. It was intercepted before it reached its target.[66]
Later investigative committees
The Overman Committee was the first of many Congressional committees to investigate communism.[8] In the aftermath of the Overman Committee's report, the New York State Legislature established the Lusk Committee, which operated from June 1919 to January 1920,[67][68] Archibald E. Stevenson was its chief counsel and one of its witnesses.[69][70] Unlike the Overman Committee, the Lusk Committee was active in raiding suspect organizations.[68]
JohnSilas Reed was an American journalist, poet, and communist activist. Reed first gained prominence as a war correspondent during the Mexican Revolution for Metropolitan and World War I for The Masses. He is best known for his coverage of the October Revolution in Petrograd, Russia, which he wrote about in his 1919 book Ten Days That Shook the World.
Lee Slater Overman was a Democratic U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina between 1903 and 1930. He was the first US Senator to be elected by popular vote in the state, as the legislature had appointed senators prior to passage of the 17th Amendment to the US Constitution authorizing popular elections of senators. He served as a senator until 1930 when he died when he was two years into his fifth term.
Alexander Mitchell Palmer was an American attorney and politician who served as the 50th United States attorney general from 1919 to 1921. He is best known for overseeing the Palmer Raids during the Red Scare of 1919–20.
A select or special committee of the United States Congress is a congressional committee appointed to perform a special function that is beyond the authority or capacity of a standing committee. A select committee is usually created by a resolution that outlines its duties and powers and the procedures for appointing members. Select and special committees are often investigative, rather than legislative, in nature though some select and special committees have the authority to draft and report legislation.
The Seattle General Strike was a five-day general work stoppage by 65,000 workers in the city of Seattle, Washington from February 6 to 11, 1919. The goal was to support shipyard workers in several unions who were locked out of their jobs when they tried to strike for higher wages. Most other local unions joined the walk-out, including members of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). The national offices of the AFL unions were opposed to the shutdown. Local, state and federal government officials, the press, and much of the public viewed the strike as a radical attempt to subvert American institutions.
The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence is dedicated to overseeing the United States Intelligence Community—the agencies and bureaus of the federal government of the United States that provide information and analysis for leaders of the executive and legislative branches. The Committee was established in 1976 by the 94th Congress.
The first Red Scare was a period during the early 20th-century history of the United States marked by a widespread fear of far-left movements, including Bolshevism and anarchism, due to real and imagined events; real events included the Russian 1917 October Revolution, German Revolution of 1918–1919, and anarchist bombings in the U.S. At its height in 1919–1920, concerns over the effects of radical political agitation in American society and the alleged spread of socialism, communism, and anarchism in the American labor movement fueled a general sense of concern.
Red Summer was a period in mid-1919 during which white supremacist terrorism and racial riots occurred in more than three dozen cities across the United States, and in one rural county in Arkansas. The term "Red Summer" was coined by civil rights activist and author James Weldon Johnson, who had been employed as a field secretary by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) since 1916. In 1919, he organized peaceful protests against the racial violence.
The Office of Alien Property Custodian was an office within the government of the United States during World War I and again during World War II, serving as a custodian to property that belonged to US enemies. The office was created in 1917 by Executive Order 2729-A under the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 (TWEA) in order to "assume control and dispose of enemy-owned property in the United States and its possessions."
The Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities, popularly known as the Lusk Committee, was formed in 1919 by the New York State Legislature to investigate individuals and organizations in New York State suspected of sedition.
Max Lowenthal (1888–1971) was a Washington, DC, political figure in all three branches of the federal government in the 1930s and 1940s, during which time he was closely associated with the rising career of Harry S. Truman; he served under Oscar R. Ewing on an "unofficial policy group" within the Truman administration (1947–1952).
The Russian Soviet Government Bureau (1919–1921), sometimes known as the "Soviet Bureau," was an unofficial diplomatic organization established by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic in the United States during the Russian Civil War. The Soviet Bureau primarily functioned as a trade and information agency of the Soviet government. Suspected of engaging in political subversion, the Soviet Bureau was raided by law enforcement authorities at the behest of the Lusk Committee of the New York State legislature in 1919. The Bureau was terminated early in 1921.
The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HCUA), popularly the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives, created in 1938 to investigate alleged disloyalty and subversive activities on the part of private citizens, public employees, and those organizations suspected of having communist ties. It became a standing (permanent) committee in 1946, and from 1969 onwards it was known as the House Committee on Internal Security. When the House abolished the committee in 1975, its functions were transferred to the House Judiciary Committee.
The Union of Russian Workers in the United States and Canada, commonly known as the "Union of Russian Workers" was an anarcho-syndicalist union of Russian emigrants in the United States. The group was established shortly after the failure of the Russian Revolution of 1905 and was essentially annihilated in America by the 1919 Red Scare in which it was targeted by the Bureau of Investigation of the U.S. Department of Justice. Thousands of the group's adherents were arrested and hundreds deported in 1919 and 1920; still more voluntarily returned to Soviet Russia. During its brief existence the organization, which was only loosely affiliated with the Industrial Workers of the World, published numerous books and pamphlets in Russian by anarchist writers, operated reading rooms and conducted courses to teach newly arrived Russians English, and fulfilled a social function for emigrants half a world from home.
Archibald E. Stevenson was an American attorney and legislative researcher. Stevenson is best remembered for his work as Assistant Counsel of the Lusk Committee of the New York State Senate from 1919 to 1920, the activities of which led to a series of sensational raids and trials of self-professed revolutionary socialists. Stevenson was also the de facto author and editor of the committee's four-volume report, which anticipated congressional investigations of communism conducted in subsequent years.
The production of beer in New Jersey has been in a state of recovery since Prohibition (1919-1933) and the Great Depression (1929-1945). Currently, the state has 123 licensed breweries: a large production brewery owned by an international beverage company, Anheuser-Busch InBev, and 122 independent microbreweries and 19 brewpubs. The growth of the microbreweries and brewpubs since the 1990s has been aided by the loosening of the state's licensing restrictions and strict alcohol control laws, many of which were a legacy of Prohibition.
The American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers was founded by Louis Nicholas Hammerling in 1908. It served as an intermediary between "respectable national advertisers", and the foreign-language newspapers that profited from publishing advertisements. Frances Kellor led the effort after Hammerling's patriotism came under question ca.1918. Critics included Robert Ezra Park.
American Jewish anti-Bolshevism during the Russian Revolution describes the anti-communist views of certain American Jews after the February Revolution and October Revolution, a time that was also called the Red Scare. These views were mainly held by affluent American Jews. American Jewish leaders, such as Louis Marshall and Cyrus Adler, attempted to avoid contact with Bolsheviks and some actively engaged in anti-Bolshevik propaganda; many Jews took part in anti-Bolshevik organizations to help.
Sergei Ivanovich Gusev was a Russian revolutionary, a founding member of the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), and Soviet politician.
Since the creation of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary in 1816, many, but not all, nominations for the Supreme Court of the United States have been first referred to a committee for review prior to facing a confirmation vote before the full United States Senate. Some nominations have been withdrawn, lapsed, or been postponed without being referred to the Judiciary Committee, while some others up until 1941 had proceeded to full Senate confirmation votes without first being reviewed by the Judiciary Committee. However, ever since 1941, all nominations have been referred to the Judiciary Committee.
United States Senate, Committee on the Judiciary. Brewing and Liquor Interests and German Propaganda: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, Sixty-fifth Congress, Second and Third Sessions, Pursuant to S. Res. 307. volume 1, volume 2. Govt. print. off., 1919. Original from the University of Michigan.
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