A pack is a social group of conspecific canines. The number of members in a pack and their social behavior varies from species to species. Social structure is very important in a pack. Canine packs are led by a breeding pair, consisting of the alpha male and alpha female.
African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) live and hunt in packs. Males assist in raising the pups and stay with their pack for life while the females leave their birth pack at approximately 2.5 years old to join a pack without females. Males outnumber the females in a pack. Typically, only one female is present to breed with all males. African wild dogs are not territorial and hunt cooperatively in their packs. For example, they will run down large game and tear it apart with their pack. They also cooperate in caring for wounded, sick, and young pack members. [1]
Gray wolves (Canis lupus) usually live in packs that consist of adult parents and their offspring of perhaps the last two or three years. The adult parents are usually unrelated and other unrelated wolves may sometimes join the pack. [2] Wolves usually hunt in packs, but they hunt alone in the spring and summer months when plenty of prey is available. They are found in both Eurasia and North America.
Black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) in Southern and Eastern Africa and coyotes (Canis latrans) in North America have a single long-term mate. As such, they usually hunt alone or in pairs. [3] [4] A pack consists of the breeding pair and their current young. They occasionally cooperate in larger packs to hunt big game, but rarely hunt animals larger than a small, young antelope. Black-backed jackals are not typically considered 'aggressive' towards larger animals but tend to be wary of humans. However, they will become aggressive if they feel threatened, to defend the boundaries of their territories.
The Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) pack members hunt for rodents alone and come together mainly to defend their territory from rival packs. [5]
Corsac foxes sometimes form packs, unlike some other fox species. [6]
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Wolves are known for forming affiliative bonds within the pack hierarchy. [7] Wolves in packs are known for "play-fighting" with one another, [7] perhaps as a reflection of the relationships present in the pack, reflecting any tension, cooperation, and competition present. [7] Tensions are noted to become higher around breeding season. This is due to increased opportunities for reproduction. Individuals challenge the group hierarchy to gain better-quality mates. This leads to greater intraspecific competition and rising tensions. [7] Female wolves are known for being the main initiators of affiliative interactions, though a small percentage of males will initiate affiliative interactions. [7] The omega male is not a target of any affiliative interaction. [7] In other studies, researchers have separated the most dominant wolf from the most subordinate wolves. [8] It was recorded that the dominant wolf spent less time sleeping and showed more behavioural stress compared to the omega wolf. [8] The dominant wolf was reported to rest in the section of his enclosure closest to his pack. [8] Furthermore, researchers noted that younger, more subordinate wolves appear to have less attachment to their pack compared to their higher-ranking compatriots. [8]
Cooperation is essential for tasks such as hunting and protecting the young, though the level of attachment present in the pack is not necessarily equal. [8] The majority of wolves are known for dispersing from their birth pack; this makes measuring attachment behavior within the packs difficult. [9] There are cases in which wolves leave their pack, typically when accompanying siblings of the same sex. [9] This behaviour is suggested to be adaptive, which will benefit pack mates in future conflicts. [9]
All individuals benefit from being a member of the wolf pack; the weak are supported by the efforts of stronger wolves, [10] [11] and higher-ranking individuals enjoy better and larger kills than could be taken on their own. [12] Protection is granted by sheer number, and larger, more plentiful territory can be won and sustained. [13] Care and protection of the young are shared, and knowledge can be passed down through generations, creating a unique culture within each group [10]
The pack is typically a nuclear family unit. [14] It often consists of 5–10 (though in areas of high prey abundance can be up to 30) [15] mostly related individuals, specifically consisting of a typically unrelated breeding pair also known as the alphas, [16] their offspring, and occasionally a handful of other wolves which can be related or not. [14] Membership may be fluid and is subject to change. [17] Outside wolves may be shunned or, more rarely, accepted, depending on the specific circumstances. Genetic variability can become limited within such an interrelated group, and so conditions for gene flow must exist. [16] Outside wolves can provide these opportunities. [10] A pack may accept another wolf into their group if it is a distant relative, [14] if reproduction rates are low due to the loss or infertility of an alpha, or if their numbers are significantly reduced. [16] [ failed verification ]
Characterisation of wolves into dominance hierarchies of alpha, beta, and omega was based on behavioural studies of unrelated wolves in captivity, and this assemblage largely does not apply to natural wolf packs, which are familial units. [14]
These singular outside wolves, often referred to as lone wolves, are vulnerable to food scarcity and territorial attacks and generally comprise less than 15% of the total wolf population. Lone wolves usually result from sexually mature offspring leaving their parental pack, though may also occur if harassed subordinates chose to disperse. In times of prey scarcity, low-ranking wolves may choose to go off on their own if the pack cannot supply sufficient food. These lone wolves may then attempt to join an existing wolf pack or, more commonly, find a mate and begin a new pack family as the alphas. [16] [ obsolete source ]
Within the wolf pack, the breeding pair or the dominant breeding pair (in packs with multiple breeders), often referred to in familiar language as the "alpha pair" or the "alpha wolves", are typically the members of the family unit which breed and produce offspring; they are the matriarch and patriarch of the family. [15] It was previously believed to be common for an aging or sick alpha to be replaced by one of their offspring, [16] but more recent studies have shown this incestuous behaviour to be very rare. [18]
The importance of the alpha is rivalled only by that of the pups. [19] [ better source needed ] The fundamental purpose of the pack is the successful production of offspring, and so raising the litter is a collaborative venture – all members contribute to their development. [10] In times of scarcity, the breeding pair will often prioritise the care of the pups and preferentially feed the youngest wolves first. [14] Despite this committed involvement, pup mortality is high, with researchers citing that only roughly 30% survive their first year of life. [20] Those who survive, however, grow up with the added advantage of being surrounded by numerous caretakers and teachers. There exists a culture within wolf packs, and this is passed on to the offspring by the elders of the group. Pups learn something from each member of the pack and attain the vital social skills required to create powerful bonds upon which the wolf's societal structure relies. [10]
Animals that typically predominate over others are associated with the term alpha. Among pack-living wolves, alpha wolves are the genetic parents of most cubs in the pack. Such access to mating females creates strong selective pressure for intra-sex competition. [21]
Wolves show deference to the alpha pair in their pack by allowing them to allocate the distribution of food, typically preferentially feeding the youngest wolves. Wolves use eye contact and posture as an indicator of dominance or submission, which are largely age-based; these postures are rare except concerning food, as described previously. The smaller and more nuclear a pack is, the less status of alpha is likely to be obtained through fighting, and young wolves instead leave the pack to find a mate and produce offspring of their own. [14] Larger or less-nuclear packs may operate differently and possess more complex and flexible social structures. [22] [ better source needed ]
In the case of other wild canids, the alpha male may not have exclusive access to the alpha female; [23] : 502 [ obsolete source ] moreover, other pack members may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female; as with the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus. [24] [ full citation needed ]
As dominant roles may be deemed normal among social species with extended parenting, it has been suggested that the additional term alpha is not required merely to describe dominance due to its ubiquity but should be reserved for where they are the predominant pack progenitor. For instance, wolf biologist L. David Mech stated: [14]
...calling a wolf an alpha is usually no more appropriate than referring to a human parent or a doe deer as an alpha. Any parent is dominant to its young offspring, so alpha adds no information. Why not refer to an alpha female as the female parent, the breeding female, the matriarch, or simply the mother? Such a designation emphasizes not the animal's dominant status, which is trivial information, but its role as pack progenitor, which is critical information. The one use we may still want to reserve for alpha is in the relatively few large wolf packs comprised of multiple litters. ... In such cases, the older breeders are probably dominant to the younger breeders and perhaps can more appropriately be called the alphas. ... The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy.
One of the most persistent but disputed [25] theories in dog training literature is the idea of the alpha wolf , an individual gray wolf who uses body language and, when needed, physical force to maintain dominance within the wolf pack. The idea was first reported in early wolf research. [2] It was subsequently adopted by dog trainers. [26] Later research has disputed the theory, pointing out that it was based on the behaviour of captive packs consisting of unrelated individuals, while in nature a pack is usually made up of members of a family. [27]
The term alpha was popularised as early as 1976 in the dog training book How to Be Your Dog's Best Friend (Monks of New Skete), which introduced the idea of the alpha roll , a technique for punishing unwanted dog behaviours. Psychologist and dog trainer Stanley Coren wrote in the 2001 book How to Speak Dog, "You are the alpha dog... You must communicate that you are the pack leader and dominant". [28]
It has been suggested that the use of such techniques may have more to do with human psychology than with dog behavior; "dominance hierarchies and dominance disputes and testing are a fundamental characteristic of all social groups... But perhaps only we humans learn to use punishment primarily to gain for ourselves the reward of being dominant. [29]
Most leading veterinary and animal behaviour associations and most contemporary trainers would agree to advocate the use of rewards to teach commands and encourage good communication between owners and their pets. Many modern practices dictate the abandonment of outdated "pack" methods. [30] Some canine behaviourists suggest that kind, efficient training uses games to teach commands which can be utilised to benefit the owner's everyday life. [31]
The coyote is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the gray wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia. The coyote is larger and was once referred to as the American jackal by a behavioral ecologist. Other historical names for the species include the prairie wolf and the brush wolf.
Canidae is a biological family of dog-like carnivorans, colloquially referred to as dogs, and constitutes a clade. A member of this family is also called a canid. The family includes three subfamilies: the Caninae, the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae. The Caninae are known as canines, and include domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals and other species.
The wolf, also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of Canis lupus have been recognized, including the dog and dingo, though gray wolves, as popularly understood, only comprise naturally-occurring wild subspecies. The wolf is the largest extant member of the family Canidae, and is further distinguished from other Canis species by its less pointed ears and muzzle, as well as a shorter torso and a longer tail. The wolf is nonetheless related closely enough to smaller Canis species, such as the coyote and the golden jackal, to produce fertile hybrids with them. The wolf's fur is usually mottled white, brown, gray, and black, although subspecies in the arctic region may be nearly all white.
Canis is a genus of the Caninae which includes multiple extant species, such as wolves, dogs, coyotes, and golden jackals. Species of this genus are distinguished by their moderate to large size, their massive, well-developed skulls and dentition, long legs, and comparatively short ears and tails.
A wolfdog is a canine produced by the mating of a domestic dog with a gray wolf, eastern wolf, red wolf, or Ethiopian wolf to produce a hybrid.
The Ethiopian wolf, also called the red jackal, the Simien jackal or Simien fox, is a canine native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia, it is also known as the horse jackal. It is similar to the coyote in size and build, and is distinguished by its long and narrow skull, and its red and white fur. Unlike most large canids, which are widespread, generalist feeders, the Ethiopian wolf is a highly specialised feeder of Afroalpine rodents with very specific habitat requirements. It is one of the world's rarest canids, and Africa's most endangered carnivore.
In the zoological field of ethology, a dominance hierarchy is a type of social hierarchy that arises when members of animal social groups interact, creating a ranking system. A dominant higher-ranking individual is sometimes called an alpha, and a submissive lower-ranking individual is called a beta. Different types of interactions can result in dominance depending on the species, including ritualized displays of aggression or direct physical violence. In social living groups, members are likely to compete for access to limited resources and mating opportunities. Rather than fighting each time they meet, individuals of the same sex establish a relative rank, with higher-ranking individuals often gaining more access to resources and mates. Based on repetitive interactions, a social order is created that is subject to change each time a dominant animal is challenged by a subordinate one.
Phoca is a genus of the earless seals, within the family Phocidae. It now contains just two species, the common seal and the spotted seal. Several species formerly listed under this genus have been split into the genera Pusa, Pagophilus, and Histriophoca. Until recently, Phoca largha has been considered a subspecies of Phoca vitulina but now is considered its own species. For this reason, the fossil history of the genus is unclear, and it has formerly been used as wastebasket taxon for a number of fossils of uncertain affinity.
The alpha roll is a dog training technique that is considered outdated by many modern-day dog trainers. The theory behind the training method is that dogs are hierarchical animals. The technique is used to teach the dog that the trainer or owner of the dog is the pack leader. Methods include when a dog misbehaves to pin the dog on its back and held in that position, sometimes by the throat.
Canine reproduction is the process of sexual reproduction in domestic dogs, wolves, coyotes and other canine species.
Cooperative breeding is a social system characterized by alloparental care: offspring receive care not only from their parents, but also from additional group members, often called helpers. Cooperative breeding encompasses a wide variety of group structures, from a breeding pair with helpers that are offspring from a previous season, to groups with multiple breeding males and females (polygynandry) and helpers that are the adult offspring of some but not all of the breeders in the group, to groups in which helpers sometimes achieve co-breeding status by producing their own offspring as part of the group's brood. Cooperative breeding occurs across taxonomic groups including birds, mammals, fish, and insects.
Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses of individuals or groups of domestic dogs to internal and external stimuli. It has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans and their lifestyles. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans. Behavioral scientists have uncovered a wide range of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs.
Reproductive suppression is the prevention or inhibition of reproduction in otherwise healthy adult individuals. It occurs in birds, mammals, and social insects. It is sometimes accompanied by cooperative breeding. It is maintained by behavioral mechanisms such as aggression, and physiological mechanisms such as pheromone signalling. In evolutionary terms, it may be explained by the theory of inclusive fitness.
The African wild dog, also known as the painted dog or Cape hunting dog, is a wild canine native to sub-Saharan Africa. It is the largest wild canine in Africa, and the only extant member of the genus Lycaon, which is distinguished from Canis by dentition highly specialised for a hypercarnivorous diet and by a lack of dewclaws.
Infanticide is the termination of a neonate after it has been born, and in zoology this is often the termination or consumption of newborn animals by either a parent or an unrelated adult. In rodents, it is not uncommon for the mother to commit infanticide shortly after parturition under conditions of extreme stress, or for an unrelated male to kill neonates.
Bite inhibition, sometimes referred to as a soft mouth, is a behavior in carnivorans whereby the animal learns to moderate the strength of its bite. It is an important factor in the socialization of pets.
Single wolves or mated pairs typically have higher success rates in hunting than do large packs; single wolves have occasionally been observed to kill large prey such as moose, bison and muskoxen unaided. This contrasts with the commonly held belief that larger packs benefit from cooperative hunting to bring down large game. The size of a wolf hunting pack is related to the number of pups that survived the previous winter, adult survival, and the rate of dispersing wolves leaving the pack. The optimal pack size for hunting elk is four wolves, and for bison a large pack size is more successful.
Wolves communicate using vocalizations, body postures, scent, touch, and taste. The lunar phases have no effect on wolf vocalisation. Despite popular belief, wolves do not howl at the Moon. Gray wolves howl to assemble the pack, usually before and after hunts, to pass on an alarm particularly at a den site, to locate each other during a storm or while crossing unfamiliar territory, and to communicate across great distances. Other vocalisations include growls, barks and whines. Wolves do not bark as loudly or continuously as dogs do but they bark a few times and then retreat from a perceived danger. Aggressive or self-assertive wolves are characterized by their slow and deliberate movements, high body posture and raised hackles, while submissive ones carry their bodies low, sleeken their fur, and lower their ears and tail. Raised leg urination is considered to be one of the most important forms of scent communication in the wolf, making up 60–80% of all scent marks observed.
Howling is a vocal form of animal communication seen in most canines, particularly wolves, coyotes, foxes, and dogs, as well as cats and some species of monkeys. Howls are lengthy sustained sounds, loud and audible over long distances, often with some variation in pitch over the length of the sound. Howling is generally used by animals that engage in this behavior to signal their positions to one another, to call the pack to assemble, or to note their territory. The behavior is occasionally copied by humans, and has been noted to have varying degrees of significance in human culture.
...Schenkel's 1947 "Expressions Studies on Wolves", the study that gave rise to the now outmoded notion of alpha wolves. That concept was based on the old idea that wolves fight within a pack to gain dominance and that the winner is the "alpha" wolf. Today we understand that most wolf packs consist of a pair of adults called "parents" or "breeders," and their offspring.
The point here is not so much the terminology but what the terminology falsely implies: a rigid, force-based dominance hierarchy.PDF available at wolf.org
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