Parasyrphus nigritarsis

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Parasyrphus nigritarsis
Parasyrphus nigritarsus eating phratora vitellinae.jpg
Larva of Parasyrphus nigritarsus (l.) eating Phratora vitellinae larva (r.)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Syrphidae
Genus: Parasyrphus
Species:
P. nigritarsis
Binomial name
Parasyrphus nigritarsis
(Zetterstedt, 1843)
Synonyms [1]

Scaeva nigritarsis Zetterstedt, 1843

Parasyrphus nigritarsis is a species of hoverfly, from the family Syrphidae, in the order Diptera. [1] [2] It is known from northern Europe and North America, [3] [4] and has been considered to be a rare species in parts of its range. [5] Adults visit flowers as a source of nutrition, [6] and females lay their eggs on clutches of eggs of leaf beetles (family Chrysomelidae). [7] When the Parasyrphus larvae hatch, they first consume leaf beetle eggs and then consume immature beetles until they reach the pupal stage. [8] [9] [10] This species is related to hoverflies that prey on aphids as larvae, [11] [12] and has been investigated in studies of chemical ecology [7] [13] [14] [15] [16] and food web ecology. [17] [18]

Contents

Egg of P. nigritarsus (top, pale) on egg clutch of P. vitellinae (yellow) Parasyrphus nigritarsus egg on phratora vitellinae egg clutch.jpg
Egg of P. nigritarsus (top, pale) on egg clutch of P. vitellinae (yellow)

Distribution and habitat

In Eurasia, P. nigritarsus occurs in the Nordic countries, south to Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and northern Spain, Ireland east through Central Europe into Russia and on to the Russian Far East and Japan. [3] In North America, it occurs from Alaska to Quebec and south to Washington and Idaho. [19] Thus, P. nigritarsus is considered to be present throughout the Northern Hemisphere and it is one of several syrphid species included in the 'Barcode of Life Data System, [20] a project focusing on species occurring in Canada that includes taxonomic information, metadata, and DNA sequences for several individuals at the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase gene. [21] The flies tend to live in woodland and wetland populated by Alnus, [22] Salix, [23] Populus tremula and Alnus viridis scrub up to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in the Alps. [24] Flowers visited by adults include Anemone nemorosa, Potentilla erecta, Prunus cerasus, Prunus spinosus, Ranunculus, Rhododendron aureum, Rubus idaeus, Salix. [6]

Description

Eggs of P. nigritarsus are white and are smaller than the eggs of their leaf beetle prey (see photo). In the larval stage, mature P. nigritarsus individuals (third instar) are 14–16mm long and approximately 3mm in diameter. Larvae have two pairs of lobes at the anal segment and a complex color pattern with triangular yellow markings on abdominal segments and thin dark brown stripes anterior to them. [5] Adults are medium-sized flies whose legs have pale intermediate segments (femur, tibia) and dark terminal segments (tarsi). They are somewhat unusual among Parasyrphus species in appearance and behavior. [22] Adult wing length ranges from 9-11.5mm. The abdomen is striped and the fly superficially resembles a bee. [20] Abdominal tergites 3 and 4 have a marginal sulcus. The face lacks a black stripe, but has a black edge to the mouth. The frons in females has large dust patches. Consult DipteraMorphology page for definitions of specialized terms describing adult fly morphology. Biological keys to identify adults and larvae are available. [25] [26] [27] [28]

Biology and prey use

Parasyrphus nigritarsus has been implicated as a major natural enemy of leaf beetles in the subfamily Chrysomelinae within the Chrysomelidae. [16] These leaf beetles lay multiple clutches of 10-30 eggs on host plants in early summer. All beetle species that have been documented as prey to P. nigritarsus or its North American relative Parasyrphus melanderi possess external defensive secretion glands as larvae, from which they evert volatile secretions that are presumed to be repellent to potential predators. [16] Yet female P. nigritarsus lay their eggs adjacent to or among the beetle eggs, and the fly larvae hatch before the beetles do, indicating that they are closely adapted to the life cycle of their prey. When beetle population densities are high, fly abundance also increases and this can be measured by counting the number of fly eggs laid on each beetle clutch. [14] [9] Most likely, when predator abundance is relatively high, fly females lay eggs on beetle clutches where a prior fly female had already laid her eggs, as was observed for Parasyrphus melanderi in California. [29]

Once the fly eggs hatch, they first consume beetle eggs, and then consume larvae. [30] The beetle defensive secretion does not repel flies. On the contrary, fly larvae are attracted to the odor of beetle larval defensive secretions, regardless of whether the beetle secretion is primarily derived from the host plant or an autogeneously synthesized secretion. [13] Mature fly larvae grasp the prey larva beneath its head and appear to inject a toxin that immobilizes the prey before sucking out its internal tissues. [10] [5] At the population level, these specialist predators are considered voracious and have significant impacts on beetle mortality. [9] [16] They are known to feed on Chrysomela vigintipunctata , [8] [31] [27] Chrysomela lapponica , [15] [18] Chrysomela populi , [32] Plagiosterna aenea , [14] [5] [8] Phratora vulgatissima , [33] and Phratora vitellinae [7] in Europe and on Chrysomela crotchi in North America. [34] Other investigators of beetle population dynamics have noted the presence of a syrphid with very similar behaviors feeding on dock beetles Gastrophysa viridula in the United Kingdom, [35] and similar behaviors have been observed for Parasyrphus melanderi feeding on Chrysomela aeneicollis in California. [29]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fly</span> Order of insects

Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- di- "two", and πτερόν pteron "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced mechanosensory organs known as halteres, which act as high-speed sensors of rotational movement and allow dipterans to perform advanced aerobatics. Diptera is a large order containing an estimated 1,000,000 species including horse-flies, crane flies, hoverflies, mosquitoes and others, although only about 125,000 species have been described.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hover fly</span> Family of insects

Hover flies, also called flower flies or syrphid flies, make up the insect family Syrphidae. As their common name suggests, they are often seen hovering or nectaring at flowers; the adults of many species feed mainly on nectar and pollen, while the larvae (maggots) eat a wide range of foods. In some species, the larvae are saprotrophs, eating decaying plant and animal matter in the soil or in ponds and streams. In other species, the larvae are insectivores and prey on aphids, thrips, and other plant-sucking insects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leaf beetle</span> Family of beetles

The insects of the beetle family Chrysomelidae are commonly known as leaf beetles, and include over 37,000 species in more than 2,500 genera, making up one of the largest and most commonly encountered of all beetle families. Numerous subfamilies are recognized, but the precise taxonomy and systematics are likely to change with ongoing research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blue willow beetle</span> Species of beetle

The blue willow beetle, formerly Phyllodecta vulgatissima, is a herbivourous beetle of the family Chrysomelidae. It is dark with a metallic sheen that ranges from a blue color to bronze. It is distinguished from P. vitellinae by the latter more commonly displaying bronze coloration. European Phratora species can be distinguished based on morphology of female genitalia. The larvae undergo three instar stages from hatching to pupation. This beetle is found throughout Europe and Scandinavia, and occurs in China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cereal leaf beetle</span> Species of beetle

The cereal leaf beetle is a significant crop pest, described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chrysomelinae</span> Subfamily of beetles

The Chrysomelinae are a subfamily of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), commonly known as broad-bodied leaf beetles or broad-shouldered leaf beetles. It includes some 3,000 species around the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eristalinae</span> Subfamily of flies

Eristalinae are one of the four subfamilies of the fly family Syrphidae, or hoverflies. A well-known species included in this subfamily is the dronefly, Eristalis tenax.

<i>Syritta pipiens</i> Species of fly

Syritta pipiens, sometimes called the thick-legged hoverfly, is one of the most common species in the insect family Syrphidae. This fly originates from Europe and is currently distributed across Eurasia and North America. They are fast and nimble fliers, and their larvae are found in wet, rotting organic matter such as garden compost, manure, and silage. The species is also commonly found in human-created environments such as most farmland, gardens, and urban parks, wherever there are flowers. This species is an important part of its native ecosystem as adult Syritta pipiens flies are critical pollinators for a variety of flowering plants and the species supports parasitism by various parasitic wasp species. Thus, they play an important role in environmental functionality, and can serve as bio-indicators, in which their abundance can reflect the health of the environment. Syritta pipiens looks like many predatory hoverfly species, yet is not predatory.

<i>Parasyrphus</i> Genus of flies

Parasyrphus is a genus of hover fly found in the holarctic area of the world including species like Parasyrphus tarsatus located in some very northern areas. Very few of the 31 identified species have known larvae. Of the known larvae most are predators of tree aphids with one, Parasyrphus nigritarsis, that feed on beetle eggs and larvae.

<i>Toxomerus</i> Genus of flies

Toxomerus is a very large genus of hoverflies. They are found in many parts of North and South America. Most larvae are predators on soft bodied insects, though a few species have been shown to feed on pollen. Adults feed on the pollen of a wide range of flowers.

<i>Chrysomela lapponica</i> Species of beetle

The leaf beetle Chrysomela lapponica is found in central and northern Europe feeding on leaves of willows and birch. The adult beetles are about 8 mm long and beetles in different regions can have different colour patterns on their elytra.

Insects have a wide variety of predators, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, carnivorous plants, and other arthropods. The great majority (80–99.99%) of individuals born do not survive to reproductive age, with perhaps 50% of this mortality rate attributed to predation. In order to deal with this ongoing escapist battle, insects have evolved a wide range of defense mechanisms. The only restraint on these adaptations is that their cost, in terms of time and energy, does not exceed the benefit that they provide to the organism. The further that a feature tips the balance towards beneficial, the more likely that selection will act upon the trait, passing it down to further generations. The opposite also holds true; defenses that are too costly will have a little chance of being passed down. Examples of defenses that have withstood the test of time include hiding, escape by flight or running, and firmly holding ground to fight as well as producing chemicals and social structures that help prevent predation.

<i>Phratora</i> Genus of beetles

Phratora is a genus of leaf beetles. It is synonymous to Phyllodecta . European Phratora species can be distinguished based on morphology of female genitalia., but they differ little in size and body form and most show metallic coloration.

<i>Phratora vitellinae</i> Species of beetle

Phratora vitellinae, the brassy leaf beetle, formerly Phyllodecta vitellinae, is a beetle of the family Chrysomelidae found in Europe and Asia. It feeds on Populus and Salix species. The evolution of its host plant preferences and the mechanism by which it uses host plant chemicals to make a larval defensive secretion have been the subject of intense study by research groups in Europe and the Nordic countries.

<i>Phratora laticollis</i> Species of beetle

Phratora laticollis is a species of leaf beetle found in Europe and Asia. This beetle is found on Populus species and the chemistry and production of its larval defensive secretions and host plant relationships have been studied extensively.

<i>Chrysomela aeneicollis</i> Species of beetle

Chrysomela aeneicollis is a species of leaf beetle in the family Chrysomelidae. This organism has been used as a model for studies of natural selection in nature. It is currently being investigated to study effects of environmental change on insect populations, and the evolutionary significance of variation at genes affecting metabolism and the response to stress. It has been included as a study species in the California Conservation Genomics Project, due to its presence in multiple California ecoregions and extensive knowledge of genetic variation, evolutionary ecology, and interactions with other species. Information about its range and comparisons with closely related species can be found in a review of the genus Chrysomela published in the Canadian Entomologist.

<i>Parasyrphus melanderi</i> Species of fly

Parasyrphus melanderi is a flower fly that is best known as a larval predator on the leaf beetle Chrysomela aeneicollis in the Sierra Nevada range of California.

<i>Symmorphus cristatus</i>

Symmorphus cristatus is a species of mason wasp in the subfamily Eumeninae within the family Vespidae. This species is widely distributed in North America, and it preys on the larvae of leaf beetles.

<i>Phratora tibialis</i> Species of beetle

Phratora tibialis is a species of leaf beetle found in Europe and parts of Asia. This beetle is found on willows and the chemistry and production of its larval defensive secretions and host plant relationships have been studied extensively.

References

  1. 1 2 Chandler, Peter J. (1998). Checklists of Insects of the British Isles (New Series) Part 1: Diptera. Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects. Vol. 12. London: Royal Entomological Society of London. pp. 1–234. ISBN   0-901546-82-8.
  2. ↑ Stubbs, Alan E. & Falk, Steven J. (1983). British Hoverflies: An Illustrated Identification Guide. British Entomological & Natural History Society. pp. 253, xvpp.
  3. 1 2 Soos, A.; Papp, L.; Soos, A.; Papp, L. (1988). Volume 8: Syrphidae-Conopidae. Catalogue of Palaearctic Diptera. Vol. 8. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
  4. ↑ Vezsenyi, K. A.; Beresford, D. V.; Moran, K.; Young, A. D.; Locke, M. M.; Crins, W. J.; Schaefer, J. A.; Skevington, Jeffrey H. (2021). "Distribution of Syrphidae (Diptera) across northern Ontario". The Canadian Entomologist. 153 (2): 181–195. doi:10.4039/tce.2020.68. ISSN   0008-347X. S2CID   230610037.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Rotheray, G. E. (1997). "Larval stages of the predatory hoverflies Trichopsomyia flavitarsis (Meigen), platycheirus melanopsis Loew and Parasyrphus nigritarsis (Zetterstedt) (Diptera: Syrphidae)". Entomologist's Gazette. 48 (2): 127–134.
  6. 1 2 de Buck, N. (1990). "Bloembezoek en bestuivingsecologie van Zweefvliegen (Diptera, Syrphidae) in het bijzonder voor België". Doc. Trav. IRSNB, no. 60, pp. 1-167.
  7. 1 2 3 Rank, Nathan E; Köpf, Alfred; Julkunen-Tiitto, Riitta; Tahvanainen, Jorma (1998). "Host preference and larval performance of the salicylate-using leaf beetle Phratora vitellinae". Ecology. 79 (2): 618–631. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[0618:HPALPO]2.0.CO;2.
  8. 1 2 3 Schneider, F. (1953). "Syrphus nigritarsis Zett. Ein Ei- und Larvenräuber von Melasoma (Chrysom., Col.)". Tijdschrift over Plantenziekten. 59: 192–194.
  9. 1 2 3 Kanervo, V. (1946). "Tutkimuksia lepän lehtikuoriaisen, Melasoma aenea L. (Col., Chrysomelidae), luontaisista vihollisista. (Ref.: Studien über die natürlichen Feinde des Erlenblattkäfers, Melasoma aenea L. (Col., Chrysomelidae)". Annales Zoologici Societatis Zoologicae Botanicae Fennicae "Vanamo". 12 (3): 1–202.
  10. 1 2 Keller, C. (1917). "Zur Biologie von Chrysomela aenea L. und Coleophora fuscedinella Zell". Vierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich. 62: 103–124.
  11. ↑ Rotheray, G. E.; Gilbert, F. S. (1989). "The phylogeny and systematics of European predacious Syrphidae (Diptera) based on larval and puparial stages". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 95: 29–70. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1989.tb02222.x.
  12. ↑ Mengual, Ximo; Ståhls, Gunilla; Rojo, Santos (2008). "First phylogeny of predatory flower flies (Diptera, Syrphidae, Syrphinae) using mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S rRNA genes: conflict and congruence with the current tribal classification". Cladistics. 24 (4): 543–562. doi:10.1111/j.1096-0031.2008.00200.x. hdl: 10045/12249 . ISSN   0748-3007. PMID   34879632. S2CID   85348839.
  13. 1 2 Köpf, A.; Rank, N.; Roininen, H.; Tahvanainen, J. (1997). "Defensive larval secretions of leaf beetles attract a specialist predator Parasyrphus nigritarsis". Ecological Entomology. 22 (2): 176–183. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.t01-1-00061.x. S2CID   83877801.
  14. 1 2 3 Baur, R.; Rank, N. E. (1996). "Influence of host quality and natural enemies on the life history of the alder leaf beetles Agelastica alni and Linaeidea aenea". In P. H. Jolivet, M. L. Cox (ed.). Chrysomelidae Biology. Vol. 2: Ecological Studies. Amsterdam: SPB Publishing. pp. 173–194.
  15. 1 2 Gross, J.; Fatouros, N. E.; Neuvonen, S.; Hilker, M. (2004). "The importance of specialist natural enemies for Chrysomela lapponica in pioneering a new host plant". Ecological Entomology. 29 (5): 584–593. doi:10.1111/j.0307-6946.2004.00632.x. ISSN   0307-6946. S2CID   85321202.
  16. 1 2 3 4 Rank, N. E.; Smiley, J. T.; Köpf, A. (1996). "Natural enemies and host plant relationships for chrysomeline leaf beetles feeding on Salicaceae". In P. H. Jolivet, M. L. Cox (ed.). Chrysomelidae Biology. Vol. 2: Ecological Studies. Amsterdam: SPB Publishing. pp. 147–171.
  17. ↑ Zvereva, E. L.; Kozlov, M. V. (2000). "Effects of air pollution on natural enemies of the leaf beetle Melasoma lapponica". Journal of Applied Ecology. 37 (2): 298–308. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00492.x.
  18. 1 2 Zvereva, E. L.; Kruglova, O. Y.; Kozlov, M. V. (2010). "Drivers of host plant shifts in the leaf beetle Chrysomela lapponica: natural enemies or competition?". Ecological Entomology. 35 (5): 611–622. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.2010.01220.x. S2CID   56040676.
  19. ↑ Vockeroth, John Richard (1992). The flower flies of the subfamily Syrphinae of Canada, Alaska, and Greenland: Diptera, Syrphidae. Vol. 1867. Agriculture Canada. ISBN   0-660-13830-1.
  20. 1 2 "TAXONOMY BROWSER: Parasyrphus nigritarsis". www.boldsystems.org/index.php/Taxbrowser_Taxonpage. Retrieved 2021-06-15.
  21. ↑ "Parasyrphus nigritarsis voucher BIOUG04174-E06 cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI) gene" . Retrieved 2021-06-16.
  22. 1 2 "Parasyrphus (forest syrphs)" . Retrieved 2021-06-16.
  23. ↑ Ostaff, D. P.; Mosseler, A.; Johns, R. C.; Javorek, S.; Klymko, J.; Ascher, J. S. (2015). "Willows (Salix spp.) as pollen and nectar sources for sustaining fruit and berry pollinating insects". Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 95 (3): 505–516. doi:10.4141/cjps-2014-339. ISSN   0008-4220.
  24. ↑ Speight, M. C. D. (2011). "Species accounts of European Syrphidae (Diptera), Glasgow 2011" (PDF). Syrph the Net, the Database of European Syrphidae. 65: 285.
  25. ↑ "Handbook of British Insects. Diptera: Syrphidae" (PDF). Retrieved 2021-06-15.
  26. ↑ Steyskal, George C. (1988). Diptera and Siphonaptera, Part I. Keys to the insects of the European part of the USSR. Vol. 5. Brill Archive. ISBN   90-04-09026-6.
  27. 1 2 Van Veen, Mark P. (2010). Hoverflies of Northwest Europe: identification keys to the Syrphidae. Brill. ISBN   978-90-04-27449-5.
  28. ↑ Láska, Pavel; Mazánek, Libor; Bicík, Vítezslav (2013). "Key to adults and larvae of the genera of European Syrphinae (Diptera, Syrphidae)". Acta Musei Silesiae, Scientiae Naturales. 62 (3): 193. ISSN   2336-3193.
  29. 1 2 Rank, N. E.; Smiley, J. T. (1994). "Host-plant effects on Parasyrphus melanderi Curran (Diptera: Syrphidae) feeding on a willow leaf beetle Chrysomela aeneicollis Schaeffer (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)". Ecological Entomology. 19: 31–38. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2311.1994.tb00387.x. S2CID   85082871.
  30. ↑ "Parasyrphus nigritarsis as important antagonist of Chrysomela populi". YouTube . Retrieved 2021-06-16.
  31. ↑ Topp, W.; Bell, D. (1992). "Melasoma vigintipunctata (Scop.) - ein Weidenblattkäfer mit Massenvermehrung". Faunistisch-Ökologische Mitteilungen. 6 (7/8): 267–286.
  32. ↑ Georgi, Richard; Müller, Michael (2015). "Biotic risk factors in short rotation coppice in Germany: current situation, new findings and future perspectives". In Manning, David Butler; Albrecht Bemmann; Christian Bredemeier; Michael Lamersdorf; Norbert Ammer (eds.). Bioenergy from Dendromass for the Sustainable Development of Rural Areas. Wiley Online Library. pp. 199–216. doi:10.1002/9783527682973.ch16. ISBN   978-3-527-33764-4.
  33. ↑ Björkman, C.; Johansson, H.; Snäll, T. (2011). "Spatial distribution of interacting insect predators: Possible roles of intraguild predation and the surrounding habitat". Basic and Applied Ecology. 12 (6): 516–522. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2011.07.006.
  34. ↑ Elliott, K. R.; Wong, H. R. (1966). "An important predator of the aspen leaf beetle, Chrysomela crotchi Brown, in Manitoba and Saskatchewan". Bi-monthly Research Notes, Forestry Service, Canada. 22 (5): 3–4.
  35. ↑ Whittaker, J. B.; Ellistone, J.; Patrick, C. K. (1979). "The dynamics of a chrysomelid beetle, Gastrophysa viridula, in a hazardous natural habitat". Journal of Animal Ecology. 48 (3): 973–986. doi:10.2307/4208. JSTOR   4208.

Further reading

Rotheray, G. E. (1986). "Colour, shape and defence in aphidophagous syrphid larvae (Diptera)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 88 (3): 201–206. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1986.tb01188.x.

Habitat for P. nigritarsus in Germany. Grove of Populus tremula 20150309Populus tremula01.jpg
Habitat for P. nigritarsus in Germany. Grove of Populus tremula
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