| Pinnaspis | |
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| Pinnaspis uniloba | |
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| Genus: | Pinnaspis Cockerell, 1892 |
Pinnaspis, first described by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell in 1892, is a genus of scale insects belonging to the family Diaspididae, or armored scale insects. There are currently 42 species within the genus Pinnaspis. [1]
In this genus the median lobes are parallel and united by a medial zygosis. [2] Two-barred macroducts, a bi-lobed or absent second lobe, and gland spines, rather than fringed plates between pygidial lobes, and lobed pre-pygidial abdominal segments are characteristic of Pinnaspis. [2] [3] [4]
Like all members of the family Diaspididae in Pinnaspis the females are primarily sessile, molting twice before reaching the adult stage. [5] The first instar, referred to as a crawler, due to the presence of small legs and the dispersal function of this stage. The second instar and adult female lack legs and wings, and have greatly reduced to absent antenna and eyes. [5] A protective covering of wax is produced by the first and second instars and the adult female. The male undergoes four molts before reaching the adult stage, which is legged, winged, and has antenna and eyes. [5] The species Pinnaspis buxi is thought to be parthenogenic, as male scales have not been found. [4]
The genus Pinnaspis most likely originated in Asia, with the highest diversity of species found in Asia. [3] [6] Three species, Pinnaspis aspidistrae, the fern scale, Pinnaspis buxi, the boxwood scale, and Pinnaspis strachani, the lesser snow scale have widespread cosmopolitan distributions. [2] [3] These three species can be found on every continent but Antarctica. [6]
Many species that fall within Pinnaspis are not pests, but the genus includes some serious pests. Pinnaspis aspidistrae and Pinnaspis strachani have been identified as serious pests. [7] Both P. aspidistrae and P. strachani are considered polyphagous. P. aspidistrae is recorded to feed on around 60 genera, including, Citrus , and several types of ferns. [8] P. strachani is recorded to feed on over 60 genera, most commonly found on, Citrus , Cocus and Hibiscus . [8] Pinnaspis buxi is also considered a pest, though not as serious a pest as P. aspidistrae or P. strachani. [7]
Pinnaspis orlandi (Leonardi) and Pinnaspis robica Leonardi all lack definite distinguishing characters in their descriptions. [3] The illustration of Pinnaspis orlandi suggests that it may be Pinnaspis strachani. [3]
Pinnaspis aspidistrae and Pinnaspis strachani are highly morphologically similar. These two species may possibly containing multiple cryptic species, or form one highly variable species. [8]
Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the superfamily Coccoidea. Adult females typically have soft bodies and no limbs, and are concealed underneath domed scales, extruding quantities of wax for protection. Some species are hermaphroditic, with a combined ovotestis instead of separate ovaries and testes. Males, in the species where they occur, have legs and sometimes wings, and resemble small flies. Scale insects are herbivores, piercing plant tissues with their mouthparts and remaining in one place, feeding on sap. The excess fluid they imbibe is secreted as honeydew on which sooty mold tends to grow. The insects often have a mutualistic relationship with ants, which feed on the honeydew and protect them from predators. There are about 8,000 described species.
Aonidiella aurantii or red scale is an armored scale insect and a major pest of citrus. It is thought to be a native of South China but has been widely dispersed by the agency of man through the movement of infected plant material. In the United States it is known as California red scale. It was first found in California between 1868 and 1875, apparently brought there on planting material imported from Australia.
Aspidiotus is a genus of armoured scale insects. It includes several agricultural and horticultural pests.
Diaspididae is the largest family of scale insects with over 2650 described species in around 400 genera. As with all scale insects, the female produces a waxy protective scale beneath which it feeds on its host plant. Diaspidid scales are far more substantial than those of most other families, incorporating the exuviae from the first two nymphal instars and sometimes faecal matter and fragments of the host plant. These can be complex and extremely waterproof structures rather resembling a suit of armor. For this reason these insects are commonly referred to as armored scale insects. As it is so robust and firmly attached to the host plant, the scale often persists long after the insect has died.
Conchaspididae is a small family of scale insects known as false armoured scales because of their resemblance to Diaspididae.
Aleurocanthus woglumi is a species of whitefly in the family Aleyrodidae. It is a pest of citrus crops, and is commonly known as the citrus blackfly because of its slate-blue colour. It originated in Asia, but has spread to other parts of the world. The parasitic wasps, Encarsia perplexa and Amitus hesperidum can help control the pest.
Halimococcidae is a family of scale insects in the order Hemiptera. Members of the family are commonly known as pupillarial palm scales or halimococcids. Most species are found on the leaves of palm trees where they suck sap, but some species occur on Pandanus. The family was named by Brown and McKenzie in 1962 and includes five known genera and twenty one species.
Aphytis mytilaspidis is a species of chalcid wasp in the Aphelinidae family. The adults feed on scale insects and the larvae are ectoparasites of scales.
Aulacaspis yasumatsui, or cycad aulacaspis scale (CAS), is a scale insect species in the genus Aulacaspis that feeds on cycad species such as Cycas revoluta or Dioon purpusii. Other common names include the cycad scale, the sago palm scale, and the Asian cycad scale. This is a serious pest of cycads which can kill its host plant.
Diaspidina is a subtribe of armored scale insects. It occurs mostly in the Americas and Africa, with a few species in tropical Asia. In the Americas Pseudoparlatoria is the largest genus, with Diaspis second; in Africa Diaspis is the largest genus. The grouping identified by Balachowsky in 1954 as the subtribe Diaspidina, are now the tribe Diaspidini.
Rugaspidiotina is an obsolete subtribe of armored scale insects. It was established by Balachowsky in 1949 to accept those Diaspidinae which had rugaspidiotine characteristics as exemplified by genus Rugaspidiotus MacGillivray, species Rugaspidiotus arizonicus, and was moved from the Odonaspidini to the Diaspidini by Borchsenius. It was raised to tribe status as Rugaspidiotini. However, close examination of species assigned to the Rugaspidiotini showed that the rugaspidiotine characteristics convergently evolved in different groups of diaspidids. Rugaspidiotini and Rugaspidiotina are now regarded as obsolete groupings.
Aonidiella is a genus of scale insects in the family Diaspididae, the armored scale insects. Several species are pests of citrus.
Aonidiella citrina or yellow scale is an armored scale insect from the family Diaspididae. It feeds by sucking sap from plants in a number of plant families, but is mostly known for being a pest of citrus.
Aonidomytilus crookiae is a species of scale insect in the family Diaspididae which are often referred to as "armored scale insects." It is commonly known as "St. John's Wort Scale." Originally named Nelaspis crookiae by Gordon Floyd Ferris in 1954, the taxon was moved to the genus Aonidomytilus in 1984 as the result of a 1979 taxonomic revision of the genus. Aonidomytilus multiglandulatus is a junior synonym.
Hemiberlesia lataniae, the latania or palm scale, is a species of armored scale insect in the family Diaspididae. It was first described by the French entomologist Victor Antoine Signoret in 1869 using Latania lontaroides, a species of palm tree endemic to Réunion as its host; since then, it has been found on avocado trees growing in South Africa, Australia, Israel, the United States, and on a range of other plants in many parts of the world.
Ischnaspis is a genus of armored scale insects in the family Diaspididae. There are about seven described species in Ischnaspis.
Aspidiotus destructor, the coconut scale, is a species of armoured scale insect in the family Diaspididae, found in many tropical and subtropical parts of the world. It is a serious pest of coconut and banana, and attacks a range of other fruiting trees and ornamental plants.
Protopulvinaria pyriformis, commonly known as the pyriform scale, is a species of soft scale insect in the family Coccidae. It is a pest of avocado and is found in many countries around the world where avocados grow.
Metaphycus helvolus is a species of parasitic wasp in the family Encyrtidae native to South Africa. It is a parasitoid of soft scale insects and has been used in their biological control in California and Australia.
Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae, commonly known as the walnut scale, is a species of armoured scale insect in the family Diaspididae. It is native to North America where it feeds on a wide range of ornamental and forest trees and bushes.
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