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Pre-Islamic Arab trade refers to the land- and sea-trade networks used by pre-Islamic Arab nations and traders. Some regions are also known as the incense trade route. Trade has been documented as early as the beginning of the second millennium BCE.
A text from the era of Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2334-2284 BCE) mentions a shipping industry in Magan, in present-day Oman. [1] Excavations in the cities of Ur and Kish and in Bahrain and other locations along the east coast of the Arabian Peninsula have unearthed goods of Indian origin (including seals). Both indicate that the network of maritime trade was regular, bustling, and well-known as early as 3000 BC. They suggest that Bahrain and other sites along the Persian Gulf were popular docks which would welcome ships arriving from Iraq on their way to and from India. [2] [ full citation needed ]
According to the 2nd-century BCE Greek historian Agatharchides, "It does not appear that there exists a people richer than the Sabaeans and the people of Gerrha who were agents of everything which fell under the name of shipping between Asia and Europe. They made Ptolemaic Syria rich and made Phoenician trade profitable in addition to hundreds of other things." [3] He described them as fierce warriors and skilled seafarers, who sailed large ships to supply their colonies. [4] The Palmyrene Empire built a shipyard in Characene, which facilitated the transport of goods through the Euphrates ports of Dura-Europos and Sura (the present-day village of Al-Hamam, east of the al-Thawra Dam in Syria). Some of the Palmyrenes who owned and sailed ships on the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean were attested by Chinese sailors who visited the region in 97 CE and mentioned the Characene port of Charax Spasinu. [5] Characene surpassed Gerrha in the perfume trade. [6] Despite the lack of direct control by the Nabataean Kingdom in the Persian Gulf, it was reachable by land (where goods would be loaded onto ships). Nabataean writings and manufactured goods (including typical Nabataean white dyes) have been discovered in the village of Thaj near the Persian Gulf, along the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula near Bahrain and as far as the ports of Yemen and Oman. They have also been found in archeological sites along the Incense Route, such as Qaryat al-Faw. Nabataean pottery has been uncovered in India; Nabataean inscriptions are scattered throughout the Mediterranean region, from Tunisia to Rhodes, Kos, Delos, Miletus in the Aegean Sea and in Pozzuoli and Rome. [7] Late Antique to medieval trade amphorae contained different food stuffs including wine and olive oil, perhaps the best known are so-called Aqaba/Ayla vessels from the Red Sea to South Asia. [8]
The Sabaeans had a long history of seafaring and commerce. A Sabaean presence in Africa was noted in antiquity with the founding of the kingdom of Dʿmt in Ethiopia in the 8th century BCE. The 1st-century CE historian Periplus of the Erythraean Sea described how the Arabs controlled the coast of "Ezana" (the East African coast north of Somalia). The Quran mentions trade with Sheba: "And We placed between them and the cities which We had blessed [many] visible cities. And We determined between them the [distances of] journey, [saying], "Travel between them by night or day in safety." [9] The Old Testament Book of Ezekiel reads, "Dedan traded in saddle blankets with you. Arabia and all the princes of Kedar were your customers; they did business with you in lambs, rams and goats. ‘The merchants of Sheba and Raamah traded with you; for your merchandise they exchanged the finest of all kinds of spices and precious stones, and gold." [10] The Chinese explorer Faxian, who passed through Sri Lanka in 414 CE, reported that Saebaean merchants and Arabs from Oman and Hadhramaut lived in ornate homes in settlements on the island[ clarification needed ] and traded in timber. [11] The Lakhmids also traded with Chinese ships which sailed along the Euphrates past the village of al-Hirah. [12] In the northern Lakhmid kingdom (present-day Al Anbar Governorate flows the 'Isā River, which connects the Tigris and the Euphrates. [13] To reach the Persian Gulf from al-Hirah, the Lakhmids traveled in smaller boats to the port in al-Ubulla (where there were sea ships bound for India and China). They would then depart for China via Bahrain and Aden. [14]
| Name | Location | Operation | Description | Clientele |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dumat al-Jandal | Near al-Jawf (northern Arabian Peninsula) | 1-15 Rabi' al-awwal | Commercial and amenity market, with trade by tossing stones | Iraq, Syria and the Arabian Peninsula |
| Hajar | Bahrain | Rabi' al-Thani | Dates, dry goods, ambergris, musk | Traders from neighboring provinces |
| Al-Mushaqqar | Bahrain | Jumada al-awwal | General market in which sales were made with gestures and nonverbal utterances, the roads to which were not safe | Arabs and foreigners, particularly Persians |
| Oman | Yemeni seacoast | Jumada al-Thani (and from the 15th to the end of Ramadan) | Ambergris, metals, fruits | Varied, including Arabs from the tribe of Azd |
| Hubasha | Bareq, Tihamah | Early Rajab | Secondary market shared by Yemen, Tihamah and the Hejaz, which operated until 812 CE | Varied |
| Sohar | Oman coast | Rajab | Commercial market, protected during the holy month[ clarification needed ] | Varied |
| Dibba | Arabian Gulf | End of Rajab to the 10th of Sha'ban | Mixed market, in which Arab products were sold by bargaining | India, Sindh, China, Arabs |
| Al-Shahrah or Shahar Mahrah | Southern coast, between Aden and Oman | 15th of Sha'ban | Camels, ambergris, dairy products, cloth, rope and hides. Goods sold with stone-balanced scales. | Merchants |
| Aden | South of the Bab-el-Mandeb | From 1–10 Ramadan | Perfume, collyrium, pearls; safe access | Arabs, Persians and Romans |
| San'a | Yemeni capital | 15–30 Ramadan | Cotton, saffron, dyes, Galia Moschata[ clarification needed ] and collyrium, sold by touching hands | Arab, Ethiopian and Persian merchants |
| Hadhramaut | Between Oman and Yemen | 15–30 Dhu al-Qidah | Limited size | Varied |
| Okaz | The lands of the tribe of Hawazin, in the Hejaz near Ta'if | 1–20 Dhu al-Qidah | The best-known Arab market, which contributed to the standardisation of Arabic dialects | Varied throughout the Arabian Peninsula |
| Majannah | The lands of the tribe of Banu Kinanah in Tihamah, near Mecca | 20–30 Dhu al-Qidah | Smaller than Okaz, protected by its position and during the holy months[ clarification needed ] | Similar to Okaz, plus Arabs and pilgrims on Hajj and Umrah |
| Dhu Majaz | Near Mount Arafat | 1–8 Dhu al-Hijjah | General market, inhabited until Youm al-Tarwiyah[ clarification needed ] | Arab merchants and pilgrims |
| Natat Khaybar | North of Medina | After the pilgrimage season | Commercial market | Jewish clientele |
| Hajr al-Yamama | current Riyadh Saudi arabia | 10–30 Muharram | General market protected during the holy months | Arabs |
| Dayr Ayyub | North of Bosra (he Levant) | After the pilgrimage season | Roman-controlled commercial market | Meeting place for Arab and Roman merchants |
| Bosra market | Southern Levant (Hauran) | After the pilgrimage season, 30-40 nights usually between Muharram and Rabi' al-Awwal | Commercial market including Indian and Ethiopian products, noted for swords and wines | Arab merchants |
| Adhra'at (Daraa) | Hauran | After the pilgrimage season and the Bosra market | Noted for wine | Arab merchants |
| Al-Hirah Market | North of Kufa | Unknown | Noted for hides, perfume, collyrium, jewelry, horses and goods from other Arab markets and those of neighboring countries. Safety provided by the Lakhmid kings. | Arabs and Persians |
| Al-Mirbad | Outskirts of Basra | Perennial | Similar to Okaz: a general, commercial, residential and literary centre until the Abbasid era | Arab traders, poets and intellectuals |
The Qur'an mentions the winter and summer journeys which the tribe of Quraysh would make, since Mecca was on the Incense Road. Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, the great-grandfather of Muhammad, was a distinguished merchant whose trading post was in Gaza (where he died and was buried). He founded the "'īlāf," (solidarity), a series of commercial agreements between him, the tribe of Quraysh and the other factions with whom they traded. His tomb is in the Sayed al-Hashim Mosque.
Islamic sources also mention Muhammad's mercantile career in the Levant, beginning with a trip to the region with his uncle Abu Talib. In Bosra, the Nestorian priest Bahira foretold Muhammad's life. He later employed Khadija bint Khuwaylid, the woman who became his wife. According to Christian sources from 660 and 692 CE, [15] "Mohammad would go to [the] lands of Palestine, Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia to trade." [16] Bosra has the Mosque of the Blessing of the Camel (which was blessed by Muhammad's camel in the caravan of his uncle, Abu Talib) and the Monastery of Bahira. Bosra is a Nabatean city, which became the capital after Petra. After the fall of the Nabatean Kingdom, the Romans made Bosra the capital of the Province of Arabia. A fourth-century Byzantine source notes the concentration of Arab commerce in Bosra. [17]
The south Arabian navigation history were suggested by Gus van Beek that they are developed through their constant contacts with advanced maritime civilization. [18] According to biblical historiographical research by Charles Henry Stanley Davis, a semitic maritime civilization named Phoenicia which dated from 1100 and 200 BC has long time planted colonies of merchants in Yemen. [19] The prosperity of Gerrhan caused the Yemen and the Phoenician in the opening of Indian route commerce. [20] The Phoenician colonies in Yemen has shipped merchant vessels came from India unloaded their cargoes in Yemen coasts and carried them across the Arabian desert to their hometown in Levant. [19] The Phoenician merchants also settled in Persian gulf in their effort of transporting commodities from India to their hometown. [21] Thus the trade activities between the local Yemenites and the Phoenician has formed a prosper ancient Arab kingdom, Gerrha. [20] The commodities which brought by the Phoenician from Yemen and Persian gulf were transported with Arabian caravan crossing the desert towards Levant. [21]
Arab naval trade was contested by the Greeks, who tried to challenge Arab control of maritime trade between India and Egypt during the early Middle Ages. Arab trade persisted during the period, and Greek naval trade dwindled. [22] There were a number of harbors on the Arabian Peninsula, some of which remain in operation. The most important harbors in the eastern Arabian Peninsula were Al-Ubulla, Gerrha and Sohar (Oman). The most important southern harbors were Mocha, Qanī (now Bi'r `Ali, Yemen), Aden, and Muska (Samharam). [23] The most important western ports included al-Sha'ibah, Aylah (Aqaba) and Luwikat Kuma (al-Hawra'). A sea route used by Arabs to reach the Indian subcontinent ran from "The Euphrates of Maysan" to Debal on the Indus River. [24] They would also sail from al-Ubulla, passing Oman and on to India. [25] Those who traveled from the harbors of Yemen, such as the Qanī and "Muza" of Gerrha, would sail directly to India without needing to stop and resupply. [26]
The Arabs land trade, which spanned from their hometown in south of Yemen has touched the trades in Silk Road and Indian Ocean trade particularly in which the modern historians coined in "Frankincense and myrrh" theory, which spread by them through camel caravans. [27] [28] This south Arabian peoples trade activities has existed from the era of Queen of Sheba according to biblical historiography. [29] [30]
Land trade extended as far as the Caucasus Mountains.[ citation needed ] The road began in the city of Qanī in Hadhramaut, and branched into two paths 160 miles (260 km) apart.[ citation needed ] The first path led east, along Wadī Mayfa'a to Shabwa; the second led from Qanī to Wadī Hajar and passed through Wadī Armah, the water source for Shabwa. From Shabwa, the road turned towards Aden and led to Najran. [31] The road continued northeast from Najdan to Wadī Al-Dawasir, passing the villages of al-Faw and al-Aflaj (where it branched in two directions). The first led east to the Persian Gulf, and the other led north to the Levant. [32]
The Persian Gulf, sometimes called the Arabian Gulf, is a mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. It is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz. The Shatt al-Arab river delta forms the northwest shoreline.
Bahrain was a central location of the ancient Dilmun civilization. Bahrain's strategic location in the Persian Gulf has brought rule and influence from mostly the Persians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Portuguese, the Arabs, and the British.
The Arabian Peninsula, or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. At 3,237,500 km2 (1,250,000 sq mi), comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Gerrha was an ancient and renowned city within Eastern Arabia, on the west side of the persian Gulf.
Dhow is the generic name of a number of traditional sailing vessels with one or more masts with settee or sometimes lateen sails, used in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean region. Typically sporting long thin hulls, dhows are trading vessels primarily used to carry heavy items, such as fruit, fresh water, or other heavy merchandise, along the coasts of Eastern Arabia, Iran, East Africa, Yemen and coastal South Asia. Larger dhows have crews of approximately thirty and smaller ones typically around twelve.
Hadhramaut is a geographic region in southern Arabia, comprising mainly of the eastern Governorates of Yemen, the Dhofar Governorate in south-western Oman and the Najran Province in southern Saudi Arabia. The name is of ancient origin, and is retained in the name of the Yemeni Governorate of Hadhramaut. The people of Hadhramaut are called Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak Hadhrami Arabic.
The terms Qahtanite and Qahtani refer to Arabs who originate from modern-day Yemen. The term "Qahtan" is mentioned in multiple ancient Arabian inscriptions found in Yemen. Arab traditions believe that they are the original Arabs.
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The incense trade route was an ancient network of major land and sea trading routes linking the Mediterranean world with eastern and southern sources of incense, spices and other luxury goods, stretching from Mediterranean ports across the Levant and Egypt through Northern East Africa and Arabia to India and beyond. These routes collectively served as channels for the trading of goods such as Arabian frankincense and myrrh; Indian spices, precious stones, pearls, ebony, silk and fine textiles; and from the Horn of Africa, rare woods, feathers, animal skins, Somali frankincense, gold, and slaves. The incense land trade from South Arabia to the Mediterranean flourished between roughly the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD.
Failaka Island is a Kuwaiti Island in the Persian Gulf. The island is 20 km off the coast of Kuwait City in the Persian Gulf. The name "Failaka" is thought to be derived from the ancient Greek φυλάκιο(ν) – fylakio(n) "outpost".
South Arabia is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'Asir, which are presently in Saudi Arabia, and Dhofar of present-day Oman.
Uqair, alternatively spelled as al-'Uqair, Uqayr, and Ogair, is an ancient seaport city in the Al-Ahsa Governorate of the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. It is the first seaport in the Persian Gulf and has been linked by some to the ancient city of Gerrha mentioned in Greek and Roman sources. The site was also the location of the conference at which the Uqair Protocol of 1922 was issued, which helped to establish the borders of modern Saudi Arabia.
Pre-Islamic Arabia, referring to the Arabian Peninsula before Muhammad's first revelation in 610 CE, is referred to in Islam in the context of jahiliyyah, highlighting the prevalence of paganism throughout the region at the time.
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Khor Rori is a bar-built estuary at the mouth of Wādī Darbāt in the Dhofar Governorate, Oman, near Taqah. It is an intermittently closed/open lake/lagoon, with an inlet from Arabian Sea that is usually disconnected. It is a major breeding ground for birds, and used to act as an important harbour for frankincense trade when it was an open estuary. The area represents a popular tourist spot within Oman and since 2000, is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Land of Frankincense.
The Nabataean Kingdom, also named Nabatea, was a political state of the Nabataeans during classical antiquity.
The Qedarites were an ancient Arab tribal confederation centred in their capital Dumat al-Jandal in the present-day Saudi Arabian province of Al-Jawf. Attested from the 9th century BC, the Qedarites formed a powerful polity which expanded its territory throughout the 9th to 7th centuries BC to cover a large area in northern Arabia stretching from Transjordan in the west to the western borders of Babylonia in the east, before later consolidating into a kingdom that stretched from the eastern limits of the Nile Delta in the west till Transjordan in the east and covered much of southern Judea, the Negev and the Sinai Peninsula.
Biʾr ʿAlī is a village in eastern Yemen. It is located in the Shabwah Governorate. The name means "Ali's Well" in Arabic. In pre-Islamic times, the port was called Qanīʾ.
The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire as the world's leading economic power throughout the 8th–13th centuries according to the political scientist John M. Hobson. It is commonly believed that Mu‘awiya Ibn Abi Sufyan was the first planner and establisher of the Islamic navy.
In antiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense, myrrh and spices, items which were considered valuable luxuries by the Ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaeans and Babylonians. During the classical era, several ancient city-states competed with the Sabaeans, Parthians and Axumites for the wealthy Indo-Greco-Roman trade.
Bowen 1958: 35-42; Groom 1981: 165-188.