Russ Tamblyn | |
---|---|
Born | Russell Irving Tamblyn December 30, 1934 Los Angeles, California, U.S. |
Occupations |
|
Years active | 1948–present |
Spouses |
|
Children | 2, including Amber Tamblyn |
Father | Eddie Tamblyn |
Relatives | David Cross (son-in-law) |
Website | www |
Russell Irving Tamblyn (born December 30, 1934), also known as Rusty Tamblyn, is an American film and television actor and dancer.
Born and raised in Los Angeles, Tamblyn trained as a gymnast in his youth. He began his career as a child actor for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Tamblyn appeared in the musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954). He subsequently portrayed Norman Page in the drama Peyton Place (1957), for which he earned an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. In West Side Story (1961), he portrayed Riff, the leader of the Jets gang.
Throughout the 1970s, Tamblyn appeared in several exploitation films and worked as a choreographer in the 1980s. In 1990, he starred as Dr. Lawrence Jacoby in David Lynch's television drama Twin Peaks , reprising the role during its 2017 revival.
Tamblyn was born December 30, 1934, in Los Angeles, California, [1] to actors Sally Aileen (Triplett) and Edward Francis "Eddie" Tamblyn. [2] His younger brother, Larry Tamblyn, was the organist for the 1960s band the Standells. [3]
Tamblyn was a hyperactive child with a penchant for gymnastics and performing. He took the stage during intermissions at the local movie theater and gave tumbling performances. [4] When he was 13, Tamblyn lived in North Hollywood, studied dramatics under Grace Bowman and dancing at the North Hollywood Academy, owned and operated by his parents. [5]
Tamblyn wanted to be a circus performer and was skilled in acrobatics and dancing as a child. He developed a musical act that involved singing, dancing, juggling and comedy. [6]
Tamblyn's first professional job came when he was ten years old and was cast by actor Lloyd Bridges in a play Bridges was directing called The Stone Jungle alongside Dickie Moore. [5] During the play's run Tamblyn was seen by several talent scouts and an agent, who signed him. The agent arranged for Tamblyn to audition for a role in The Boy With Green Hair (1948), and he was given a small part. [7]
He appeared as young Saul in Cecil B. DeMille's 1949 version of Samson and Delilah . "That was a big break for me", he later said. "After that I worked a lot." [7]
Tamblyn appeared in Reign of Terror , then was given a role in The Kid from Cleveland (1949), billed third (as "Rusty Tamblyn") after stars George Brent and Lynn Bari, [4] and in What Happened to Jo Jo? (1950). [4]
Tamblyn played the younger Bart Tare (played as an adult by John Dall) in the film noir Gun Crazy (1950) and Elizabeth Taylor's younger brother in Father of the Bride (also 1950) and its sequel, Father's Little Dividend (1951) at MGM. He appeared in Captain Carey, U.S.A. (1950), The Gangster We Made (1950), As Young as You Feel (1951), Cave of Outlaws (1951), Retreat, Hell! (1952), and The Winning Team (1952). [8]
MGM was impressed by Tamblyn's performance in Retreat, Hell! and signed him to a long-term contract. [9] He called this "the second big break" of his career. [8]
His first role under the contract was as a young soldier in boot camp in Take the High Ground! (1953), directed by Richard Brooks. [10] His training as a gymnast in high school, and abilities as an acrobat, prepared him for his breakout role as Gideon, the youngest brother, in Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954). [11] Tamblyn says the director wanted to cast a Broadway dancer but MGM insisted the filmmakers use some contract talent, leading to him and Jeff Richards being used. [8]
Tamblyn was not a trained dancer and always considered himself an actor who danced rather than the other way around, [11] but the film was a big success and established him at MGM. He said "my career really took off" after the film. [8]
Tamblyn was one of many studio contract players in the musical Deep in My Heart (1954). He played Eleanor Parker's brother in the Western Many Rivers to Cross (1955), and was one of several young MGM actors (others included Jane Powell and Debbie Reynolds) in the musical Hit the Deck (1955). [8]
Tamblyn supported older actors in two Westerns: Robert Taylor and Stewart Granger in The Last Hunt (1956), a flop; and Glenn Ford and Broderick Crawford in The Fastest Gun Alive (1956), a big hit, where he performed an extraordinary "shovel" dance at a hoe-down early in the film. [12] [13] [14] He served (uncredited) as a choreographer for Elvis Presley in 1957's Jailhouse Rock . MGM loaned Tamblyn to Allied Artists for his first star role, The Young Guns (1957). Back at MGM he supported Glenn Ford and Gia Scala in Don't Go Near the Water (1957), a comedy set among members of the U.S. Navy. [3]
20th Century Fox borrowed Tamblyn to play Norman Page in Peyton Place (1957), opposite Lana Turner and Diane Varsi. For his performance he received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. [3] Immediately after filming that, Tamblyn went to England to play the title role in the musical Tom Thumb (1958), made for George Pal. When he returned, MGM immediately cast him as the lead in High School Confidential (1958), which was a solid hit. [15]
Tamblyn's career momentum was interrupted when he was drafted into the United States Army in 1958. [16] During his service he was given leave to play a prominent supporting part in Cimarron (1960).
Tamblyn's best-known musical role came as Riff, the leader of the Jets street gang in West Side Story (1961). [3] He then appeared in two MGM Cinerama movies, The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm , again for Pal, and How the West Was Won (both 1962).
Tamblyn played Luke Sannerson in The Haunting for Robert Wise, who had made West Side Story. Tamblyn said he originally turned down the role as he disliked the part but agreed to do it when MGM threatened to put him on suspension. He then played "Smitty" Smith in MGM's Follow the Boys (both 1963). [17]
Tamblyn was unable to consolidate his position as a leading man, and later said he "dropped out" after his West Side Story success and devoted himself to art, refusing movie roles, as well as the role of Gilligan in the TV series Gilligan's Island . [18]
In the 1960s he appeared in the TV series The Greatest Show on Earth ("Silent Love, Secret Love"; 1963), and Channing ("The Last Testament of Buddy Crown"; 1963). Tamblyn played a Viking alongside Richard Widmark and Sidney Poitier in The Long Ships (1965). Also in 1965 he appeared in Burke's Law ("Who Killed Rosie Sunset?") and Days of Our Lives . [19]
Tamblyn had the starring role in the low-budget MGM Western Son of a Gunfighter (1965) and starred in the 1966 Japanese kaiju film War of the Gargantuas . He guest starred on Tarzan ("Leopard on the Loose", 1966), and Iron Horse ("Decision at Sundown", 1967). Tamblyn later said he became "bored" with acting around this time and more interested in art. [11]
Tamblyn starred in the notorious biker movie Satan's Sadists (1969) for Al Adamson. He followed it with Scream Free! (1969), The Last Movie (1971), The Female Bunch (1971), and Dracula vs. Frankenstein (1971) for Adamson.[ citation needed ]
He appeared on TV in Cade's County ("Ragged Edge", 1972), Win, Place or Steal (1973), The World Through the Eyes of Children (1975), The Quest ("The Captive", 1976), The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams ("The Skyrider", 1978), and Nero Wolfe ("Before I Die", 1981). He was also in Black Heat (1976).[ citation needed ]
At the same time he worked in exploitation, Tamblyn also worked in the construction industry and computer software. [11]
Tamblyn played the supporting role in Neil Young's 1982 Human Highway while also credited for screenplay and choreography. Tamblyn is credited as director, choreographer and actor for Young's Greendale concert tour. [20] He choreographed a play, Man with Bags, in 1983. [21]
Tamblyn appeared in the TV series Fame , Commando Squad (1987) for Fred Olen Ray, The Phantom Empire (1988), Necromancer (1988), B.O.R.N. (1988), The Bloody Monks (1988), and an episode of Quantum Leap . He was in Aftershock (1990) and Wizards of the Demon Sword (1991) for Fred Olen Ray.
In 1990–91, Tamblyn starred as Dr. Lawrence Jacoby on the David Lynch-created series Twin Peaks (alongside his West Side Story co-star Richard Beymer, who played Ben Horne); [22] his scenes in the 1992 prequel film Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me were cut.
He appeared in Running Mates (1992), Little Devils: The Birth (1993), Cabin Boy (1994), Desert Steel (1995), and Babylon 5 . He appeared on stage in Los Angeles in Zastrozzi. [23] His work drifted back to straight to video: Starstruck (1995), Rebellious (1995), Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold (1995) and Invisible Mom (1996) for Fred Olen Ray, Johnny Mysto: Boy Wizard (1997), My Ghost Dog (1997), and Little Miss Magic (1998) for Ray.
Tamblyn appeared on another soap opera, General Hospital , alongside his daughter Amber in 1997 and 2000. In 2004, he appeared with Amber again, playing God in the form of a man walking dogs, in three episodes of Joan of Arcadia . [24] The two also worked together in the films Rebellious, Johnny Mysto: Boy Wizard, and The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret . In Quentin Tarantino's film Django Unchained , they were billed respectively as "Son of a Gunfighter" and "Daughter of a Son of a Gunfighter", alluding to his leading role in the 1965 western Son of a Gunfighter .
In 2004, the Academy Film Archive preserved the mid-1960s works First Film and Rio Reel by Tamblyn. [25]
Tamblyn had supporting roles in Drive (2011), Django Unchained (2012), and Hits (2014). He appeared several times in The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret , [26] and in the revival of Twin Peaks (2017). [27]
Tamblyn married actress Venetia Stevenson in 1956, but they divorced the next year. [28] In 1960 he married Elizabeth Kempton, a showgirl, in Las Vegas. [29] [30] In later years, Tamblyn discovered he had a daughter from a 1960s relationship with artist and spiritual practitioner Elizabeth Anne Vigil. That daughter, China Faye Tamblyn, is an artist and heavy metal welder who lives in California. Tamblyn did not meet her until she was a teenager and only after the birth of his second child, actress and author Amber Tamblyn, who was born in 1983 to his third wife, Bonnie Murray. [31]
In 2012, it was announced that Tamblyn was working on an autobiography, Dancing On The Edge. [32] The book was released in 2024. [32]
Tamblyn underwent open heart surgery in October 2014. There were complications afterward and during his rehabilitation, but his health had reportedly improved by February 2015. [33]
Year | Title | Role | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
1948 | The Boy with Green Hair | Classmate | Uncredited |
1949 | Reign of Terror | Pierre's Oldest Son | Uncredited |
1949 | The Kid from Cleveland | Johnny Barrows | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1949 | Samson and Delilah | Saul | |
1950 | Gun Crazy | Bart Tare at 14 | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1950 | Captain Carey, U.S.A. | Pietro | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1950 | The Vicious Years | Tino | |
1950 | Father of the Bride | Tommy Banks | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1951 | Father's Little Dividend | Tommy Banks | |
1951 | As Young as You Feel | Willie McKinley | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1951 | Cave of Outlaws | Young Peter | Uncredited |
1952 | Retreat, Hell! | Private | |
1952 | The Winning Team | Willie Alexander | Credited as Rusty Tamblyn |
1953 | Take the High Ground! | Paul Jamison | |
1954 | Seven Brides for Seven Brothers | Gideon Pontipee | |
1954 | Deep in My Heart | Lazar Berrison, Jr. | Uncredited |
1955 | Many Rivers to Cross | Shields | |
1955 | Hit the Deck | Danny Xavier Smith | |
1956 | The Last Hunt | Jimmy | |
1956 | The Fastest Gun Alive | Eric Doolittle | |
1956 | The Young Guns | Tully Rice | |
1957 | Don't Go Near the Water | Ensign Tyson | |
1957 | Peyton Place | Norman Page | |
1958 | High School Confidential! | Tony Baker/Mike Wilson | |
1958 | Tom Thumb | Tom Thumb | |
1960 | Cimarron | The Cherokee Kid | |
1961 | West Side Story | Riff | |
1962 | The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm | The Woodsman ('The Dancing Princess') / Tom Thumb | |
1962 | How the West Was Won | Confederate deserter | |
1963 | Follow the Boys | Lt (JG) "Smitty" Smith | |
1963 | The Haunting | Luke Sannerson | |
1964 | The Long Ships | Orm | |
1965 | Son of a Gunfighter | Johnny Ketchum | |
1966 | War of the Gargantuas | Dr. Paul Stewart | |
1967 | The Cool Ones | Whiz-Bam Dancer | Uncredited |
1969 | Satan's Sadists | Anchor | |
1969 | Scream Free! | Link | |
1971 | Dracula vs. Frankenstein | Rico | |
1971 | The Female Bunch | Bill | |
1971 | The Last Movie | Member of Billy's Gang | |
1974 | Win, Place or Steal | Raymond | |
1975 | The World Through the Eyes of Children | Devil | |
1976 | Black Heat | Ziggy | |
1982 | Neil Young: Human Highway | Fred Kelly | Also writer and choreographer |
1985 | The Fantasy Film Worlds of George Pal | Himself | Documentary |
1987 | Commando Squad | Anchor | |
1988 | Necromancer | Charles DeLonge | |
1988 | B.O.R.N. | Hugh | |
1988 | The Phantom Empire | Bill | Direct-to-DVD |
1989 | The Bloody Monks[ citation needed ] | Frank | |
1990 | Aftershock | Hank Franklin | |
1991 | Wizards of the Demon Sword | Ulric | |
1992 | Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me | Dr. Lawrence Jacoby | Scenes deleted |
1993 | Little Devils: The Birth | Doc Clapton | |
1994 | Cabin Boy | Chocki | |
1994 | Desert Steel | Tate | |
1995 | Starstruck | Wheeler | |
1995 | Rebellious | Old Guy | |
1995 | Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold | Gas Attendant | |
1996 | Invisible Mom | Dr. Woorter | Direct-to-DVD |
1997 | Johnny Mysto: Boy Wizard | Blackmoor | Direct-to-DVD |
1998 | Little Miss Magic | Brenden Moran | |
2000 | Special Envoys | ||
2002 | Cinerama Adventure | Himself | Documentary |
2011 | Drive | Doc | |
2012 | Django Unchained | Son of a Gunfighter | |
2014 | Hits | Russ | |
2015 | Chatty Cattie | Bruce |
Year | Title | Role | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
1963 | The Greatest Show on Earth | Tom Tuttle | Episode: "Silent Love, Secret Love" |
1963 | Channing | Hal Langley | Episode: "The Last Testament of Buddy Crown" |
1965 | Burke's Law | Maximillian | Episode: "Who Killed Rosie Sunset?" |
1965 | Gunsmoke | Billy Waters | Episode: "He Who Steals" |
1966 | Tarzan | Bell | Episode: "Leopard on the Loose" |
1967 | Iron Horse | Kehoe | Episode: "Decision at Sundown" |
1969 | The Name of the Game | John Earl | Episode: "A Hard Case of the Blues" |
1972 | Cade's County | Brewster | Episode: "Ragged Edge" |
1976 | The Quest | Kelly | Episode: "The Captive" |
1978 | The Life and Times of Grizzly Adams | Milton Wright | Episode: "The Skyrider" |
1981 | Nero Wolfe | Police Detective | Episode: "Before I Die" |
1986–1987 | Fame | Russ / Michael Taftner | 3 episodes |
1987 | Rags to Riches | Roger | Episode: "Vegas Rock" |
1989 | Quantum Leap | Bert Glasserman | Episode: "Thou Shalt Not..." |
1990–1991 | Twin Peaks | Dr. Lawrence Jacoby | 15 episodes |
1992 | Running Mates | Frank Usher | Television film |
1994 | Babylon 5 | Capt. Jack Maynard | Episode: "A Distant Star" |
1997 | Nash Bridges | Jim the Penman | Episode: "The Counterfeiters" |
1997 | General Hospital | Nurses ball dancer | 1 episode |
1998 | My Ghost Dog | Vito | Television film |
1999 | Inherit the Wind | Ed Morse | Television film |
2000 | General Hospital | Dr. Rose | 2 episodes |
2004 | Joan of Arcadia | Dog Walker God | 3 episodes |
2010–2012 2016 | The Increasingly Poor Decisions of Todd Margaret | Chuck Margaret / Billy the Cheesegrater | 9 episodes |
2017 | Twin Peaks | Dr. Lawrence Jacoby | 6 episodes |
2018 | The Haunting of Hill House | Dr. Montague | Episode: "The Bent-Neck Lady" |
Award | Category | Year | Title of work | Result |
---|---|---|---|---|
Academy Award | Best Actor in a Supporting Role | 1957 | Peyton Place | Nominated |
Golden Globe Award | Most Promising Newcomer - Male | 1956 | Hit the Deck | Won (shared with Ray Danton) |
Golden Laurel Award | Top Male Musical Performance | 1959 | Tom Thumb | Nominated |
George Peppard was an American actor. He secured a major role as struggling writer Paul Varjak when he starred alongside Audrey Hepburn in Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), and later portrayed a character based on Howard Hughes in The Carpetbaggers (1964). On television, he played the title role of millionaire insurance investigator and sleuth Thomas Banacek in the early-1970s mystery series Banacek. He played Col. John "Hannibal" Smith, the cigar-smoking leader of a renegade commando squad in the 1980s action television series The A-Team.
Seven Brides for Seven Brothers is a 1954 American musical film, directed by Stanley Donen, with music by Gene de Paul, lyrics by Johnny Mercer, and choreography by Michael Kidd. The screenplay, by Albert Hackett, Frances Goodrich, and Dorothy Kingsley, is based on the short story "The Sobbin' Women", by Stephen Vincent Benét, which was based in turn on the ancient Roman legend of the Rape of the Sabine Women. Seven Brides for Seven Brothers, which is set in Oregon in 1850, is particularly known for Kidd's unusual choreography, which makes dance numbers out of such mundane frontier pursuits as chopping wood and raising a barn. Film critic Stephanie Zacharek has called the barn-raising sequence in Seven Brides "one of the most rousing dance numbers ever put on screen." The film was photographed in Ansco Color in the CinemaScope format.
How the West Was Won is a 1962 American epic Western film directed by Henry Hathaway, John Ford and George Marshall, produced by Bernard Smith, written by James R. Webb, and narrated by Spencer Tracy. Originally filmed in true three-lens Cinerama with the according three-panel panorama projected onto an enormous curved screen, the film features an ensemble cast formed by many cinema icons and newcomers, including Carroll Baker, Lee J. Cobb, Henry Fonda, Carolyn Jones, Karl Malden, Gregory Peck, George Peppard, Robert Preston, Debbie Reynolds, James Stewart, Eli Wallach, John Wayne and Richard Widmark. The supporting cast features Brigid Bazlen, Walter Brennan, David Brian, Andy Devine, Raymond Massey, Agnes Moorehead, Henry (Harry) Morgan, Thelma Ritter, Mickey Shaughnessy and Russ Tamblyn.
Kathryn Grayson was an American actress and coloratura soprano.
Jane Powell was an American actress, singer, and dancer who appeared in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer musicals in the 1940s and 50s. With her soprano voice and girl-next-door image, Powell appeared in films, television and on the stage, performing in the musicals A Date with Judy (1948), Royal Wedding (1951), Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), and Hit the Deck (1955).
George Raft was an American film actor and dancer identified with portrayals of gangsters in crime melodramas of the 1930s and 1940s. A stylish leading man in dozens of movies, Raft is remembered for his gangster roles in Quick Millions (1931) with Spencer Tracy, Scarface (1932) with Paul Muni, Each Dawn I Die (1939) with James Cagney, Invisible Stripes (1939) with Humphrey Bogart, and Billy Wilder's comedy Some Like It Hot (1959) with Marilyn Monroe and Jack Lemmon; and as a dancer in Bolero (1934) with Carole Lombard and a truck driver in They Drive by Night (1940) with Ann Sheridan, Ida Lupino and Bogart.
George Chakiris is an American actor and dancer. He is best known for his appearance in the 1961 film version of West Side Story as Bernardo, the leader of the Sharks gang, for which he won both the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture.
Gig Young was an American stage, film, and television actor.
Esther Jane Williams was an American competitive swimmer and actress. She set regional and national records in her late teens on the Los Angeles Athletic Club swim team. Unable to compete in the 1940 Summer Olympics because of the outbreak of World War II, she joined Billy Rose's Aquacade, where she took on the role vacated by Eleanor Holm after the show's move from New York City to San Francisco. While in the city, she spent five months swimming alongside Olympic gold-medal winner and Tarzan star Johnny Weissmuller. Williams caught the attention of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer scouts at the Aquacade. After appearing in several small roles, and alongside Mickey Rooney in an Andy Hardy film and future five-time co-star Van Johnson in A Guy Named Joe, Williams made a series of films in the 1940s and early 1950s known as "aquamusicals", which featured elaborate performances with synchronised swimming and diving.
Turhan Bey was an Austrian-born actor of Turkish and Czech-Jewish origins. Active in Hollywood from 1941 to 1953, he was dubbed "The Turkish Delight" by his fans. After his return to Austria, he pursued careers as a photographer and stage director. Returning to Hollywood after a 40-year hiatus, he made several guest appearances in 1990s television series including SeaQuest DSV, Murder, She Wrote and Babylon 5 as well as a number of films. After retiring, he appeared in a number of documentaries, including a German-language documentary on his life.
Dana Scott James "Jim" Hutton was an American actor in film and television best remembered for his role as Ellery Queen in the 1970s TV series of the same name, and his screen partnership with Paula Prentiss in four films, starting with Where the Boys Are. He is the father of actor Timothy Hutton.
James Craig was an American actor. He is best known for appearances in films like Kitty Foyle (1940) and The Devil and Daniel Webster (1941), and his stint as a leading man at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in the 1940s where he appeared in films like The Human Comedy (1943).
Jeff Richards was an American minor league baseball player with the Portland Beavers, who later became an actor. He was sometimes credited as Dick Taylor and Richard Taylor.
Will Hutchins is an American actor most noted for playing the lead role of the young lawyer Tom Brewster, in the Western television series Sugarfoot, which aired on ABC from 1957 to 1961 for 69 episodes.
The Last Hunt is a 1956 American Western film directed by Richard Brooks and starring Robert Taylor and Stewart Granger, with Lloyd Nolan, Debra Paget and Russ Tamblyn. It was produced by Dore Schary at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The screenplay was by Richard Brooks from the novel The Last Hunt, by Milton Lott. The music score was by Daniele Amfitheatrof and the cinematography by Russell Harlan.
The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm is a 1962 American biographical fantasy film directed by Henry Levin and George Pal. The latter was the producer and also in charge of the stop motion animation. The film was one of the highest-grossing films of 1962. It won one Oscar and was nominated for three additional Academy Awards. The cast included several prominent actors—including Laurence Harvey, Karlheinz Böhm, Jim Backus, Barbara Eden and Buddy Hackett.
Tom Thumb is a 1958 British musical fantasy film produced and directed by George Pal, and released by MGM. The film, based on the fairy tale "Thumbling" by the Brothers Grimm, is about a tiny youth who manages to outwit two thieves determined to make a fortune from him.
High School Confidential! is a 1958 American crime drama film directed by Jack Arnold, starring Mamie Van Doren, Russ Tamblyn, Jan Sterling, John Drew Barrymore, Jackie Coogan, Diane Jergens and Michael Landon.
Follow the Boys is a 1963 American comedy film directed by Richard Thorpe and starring Connie Francis, Paula Prentiss, and Janis Paige, released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Shot on location on the French and Italian Riviera, Follow the Boys was MGM's second film vehicle for top recording artist Francis following Where the Boys Are (1960). While Francis' role in the earlier film had been somewhat secondary, she had a distinctly central role in Follow the Boys playing Bonnie Pulaski, a newlywed traveling the Riviera.
Alejandro Bernardo Quiroga, better known as Alex Romero was an American dancer and choreographer who was noted for directing Elvis Presley's dancing in the movie Jailhouse Rock and for working with noted dancers and choreographers at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) during the 1940s and 1950s.