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Short-circuit evaluation, minimal evaluation, or McCarthy evaluation (after John McCarthy) is the semantics of some Boolean operators in some programming languages in which the second argument is executed or evaluated only if the first argument does not suffice to determine the value of the expression: when the first argument of the AND
function evaluates to false
, the overall value must be false
; and when the first argument of the OR
function evaluates to true
, the overall value must be true
.
In programming languages with lazy evaluation (Lisp, Perl, Haskell), the usual Boolean operators short-circuit. In others (Ada, Java, Delphi), both short-circuit and standard Boolean operators are available. For some Boolean operations, like exclusive or (XOR), it is impossible to short-circuit, because both operands are always needed to determine a result.
Short-circuit operators are, in effect, control structures rather than simple arithmetic operators, as they are not strict. In imperative language terms (notably C and C++), where side effects are important, short-circuit operators introduce a sequence point: they completely evaluate the first argument, including any side effects, before (optionally) processing the second argument. ALGOL 68 used proceduring to achieve user-defined short-circuit operators and procedures.
The use of short-circuit operators has been criticized as problematic:
The conditional connectives — "cand" and "cor" for short — are ... less innocent than they might seem at first sight. For instance, cor does not distribute over cand: compare
- (A cand B) cor C with (A cor C) cand (B cor C);
in the case ¬A ∧ C , the second expression requires B to be defined, the first one does not. Because the conditional connectives thus complicate the formal reasoning about programs, they are better avoided.
In any programming language that implements short-circuit evaluation, the expression x and y
is equivalent to the conditional expression if x then y else x
, and the expression x or y
is equivalent to if x then x else y
. In either case, x is only evaluated once.
The generalized definition above accommodates loosely typed languages that have more than the two truth-values True
and False
, where short-circuit operators may return the last evaluated subexpression. This is called "last value" in the table below. For a strictly-typed language, the expression is simplified to if x then y else false
and if x then true else y
respectively for the boolean case.
Although AND
takes precedence over OR
in many languages, this is not a universal property of short-circuit evaluation. An example of the two operators taking the same precedence and being left-associative with each other is POSIX shell's command-list syntax. [2] : §2.9.3
The following simple left-to-right evaluator enforces a precedence of AND
over OR
by a continue
:
function short-circuit-eval (operators, values) letresult := True for each (op, val) in (operators, values): ifop = "AND" && result = False continueelse ifop = "OR" && result = True returnresultelseresult := valreturnresult
Short-circuit logic, with or without side-effects, have been formalized based on Hoare's conditional. A result is that non-short-circuiting operators can be defined out of short-circuit logic to have the same sequence of evaluation. [3]
The following table is restricted to common programming languages and the basic boolean operators for logical conjunction AND
and logical disjunction OR
. In some languages, the bitwise operators can be used as eager boolean operators. For other languages, bitwise operators are not included in the list, because they do not take boolean values or have a result type different from the respective short-circuit operators.
Note that there are more short-circuit operators, for example the ternary conditional operator, which is cond ? e1 : e2
(C, C++, Java, PHP), if cond then e1 else e2
(ALGOL, Haskell, Kotlin, Rust), e1 if cond else e2
(Python). Please take a look at ternary conditional operator#Usage.
Language | Eager operators | Short-circuit operators | Result type |
---|---|---|---|
Ada | and , or | and then , or else | Boolean |
ALGOL 68 | and, &, ∧ ; or, ∨ | andf , orf (both user defined) | Boolean |
APL | ∧ , ∨ | :AndIf , :OrIf | Boolean |
awk | none | && , || | Boolean |
C, Objective-C | & , | [a] | && , || [5] | int |
C++ [b] | none | && , || [6] | Boolean |
C# | & , | | && , || | Boolean |
D [c] | & , | | && , || | Boolean |
Eiffel | and , or | and then , or else | Boolean |
Erlang | and , or | andalso , orelse | Boolean |
Fortran [d] | .and. , .or. | .and. , .or. | Boolean |
Go, Haskell, OCaml [e] | none | && , || | Boolean |
Java, R, Swift | & , | | && , || | Boolean |
JavaScript | none | && , || | Last value |
Julia | none | && , || | Last value |
Kotlin | and , or | && , || | Boolean |
Lisp, Lua [e] , Scheme | none | and , or | Last value |
MATLAB [f] | & , | | & , | , && , || | Boolean |
MUMPS (M) | & , ! | none | Numeric |
Modula-2 | none | AND , OR | Boolean |
Pascal | and , or [g] [h] | and_then , or_else [h] | Boolean |
Perl | & , | | && , and , || , or | Last value |
PHP | none | && , and , || , or | Boolean |
POSIX shell, Bash | none | && , || | Numeric (exit code) |
PowerShell Scripting Language | none | -and , -or | Boolean |
Python | & , | | and , or | Last value |
Ruby | & , | | && , and , || , or [8] | Last value |
Rust | & , | | && , || [9] | Boolean |
Smalltalk | & , | | and: , or: [i] | Boolean |
Standard ML | Unknown | andalso , orelse | Boolean |
Visual Basic .NET | And , Or | AndAlso , OrElse | Boolean |
Visual Basic, Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) | And , Or | none | Numeric |
bool
or take only the values 0
or 1
. [4] &&
and ||
are eager and can return any type.static if
and static assert
. Expressions in static initializers or manifest constants use eager evaluation.&
, |
(OCaml land
, lor
) are restricted to integers and cannot be used with Booleans.&
behaves like a short-circuit operator when used in a statement following if
or while
. [7] and:
is a block (e.g., false and: [Transcript show: 'Wont see me']
).Usual example, using a C-based language:
intdenom=0;if(denom!=0&&num/denom){...// ensures that calculating num/denom never results in divide-by-zero error }
Consider the following example:
inta=0;if(a!=0&&myfunc(b)){do_something();}
In this example, short-circuit evaluation guarantees that myfunc(b)
is never called. This is because a != 0
evaluates to false. This feature permits two useful programming constructs.
Both are illustrated in the following C snippet where minimal evaluation prevents both null pointer dereference and excess memory fetches:
boolis_first_char_valid_alpha_unsafe(constchar*p){returnisalpha(p[0]);// SEGFAULT highly possible with p == NULL}boolis_first_char_valid_alpha(constchar*p){returnp!=NULL&&isalpha(p[0]);// 1) no unneeded isalpha() execution with p == NULL, 2) no SEGFAULT risk}
Since minimal evaluation is part of an operator's semantic definition and not an optional optimization, a number of coding idioms rely on it as a succinct conditional construct. Examples include:
Perl idioms:
some_conditionordie;# Abort execution if some_condition is falsesome_conditionanddie;# Abort execution if some_condition is true
POSIX shell idioms: [10]
modprobe-qsome_module&&echo"some_module installed"||echo"some_module not installed"
This idiom presumes that echo
cannot fail.
Despite these benefits, minimal evaluation may cause problems for programmers who do not realize (or forget) it is happening. For example, in the code
if(expressionA&&myfunc(b)){do_something();}
if myfunc(b)
is supposed to perform some required operation regardless of whether do_something()
is executed, such as allocating system resources, and expressionA
evaluates as false, then myfunc(b)
will not execute, which could cause problems. Some programming languages, such as Java, have two operators, one that employs minimal evaluation and one that does not, to avoid this problem.
Problems with unperformed side effect statements can be easily solved with proper programming style, i.e., not using side effects in boolean statements, as using values with side effects in evaluations tends to generally make the code opaque and error-prone. [11]
Short-circuiting can lead to errors in branch prediction on modern central processing units (CPUs), and dramatically reduce performance. A notable example is highly optimized ray with axis aligned box intersection code in ray tracing.[ clarification needed ] Some compilers can detect such cases and emit faster code, but programming language semantics may constrain such optimizations.[ citation needed ]
An example of a compiler unable to optimize for such a case is Java's Hotspot virtual machine (VM) as of 2012. [12]
In logic, disjunction, also known as logical disjunction or logical or or logical addition or inclusive disjunction, is a logical connective typically notated as and read aloud as "or". For instance, the English language sentence "it is sunny or it is warm" can be represented in logic using the disjunctive formula , assuming that abbreviates "it is sunny" and abbreviates "it is warm".
In programming language theory, lazy evaluation, or call-by-need, is an evaluation strategy which delays the evaluation of an expression until its value is needed and which avoids repeated evaluations.
In computer programming, specifically when using the imperative programming paradigm, an assertion is a predicate connected to a point in the program, that always should evaluate to true at that point in code execution. Assertions can help a programmer read the code, help a compiler compile it, or help the program detect its own defects.
In computer science, conditionals are programming language constructs that perform different computations or actions or return different values depending on the value of a Boolean expression, called a condition.
This is a list of operators in the C and C++ programming languages.
In computer programming, the ternary conditional operator is a ternary operator that is part of the syntax for basic conditional expressions in several programming languages. It is commonly referred to as the conditional operator, conditional expression, ternary if, or inline if. An expression if a then b else c
or a ? b : c
evaluates to b
if the value of a
is true, and otherwise to c
. One can read it aloud as "if a then b otherwise c". The form a ? b : c
is the most common, but alternative syntax do exist; for example, Raku uses the syntax a ?? b !! c
to avoid confusion with the infix operators ?
and !
, whereas in Visual Basic .NET, it instead takes the form If(a, b, c)
.
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as in C, C++, C#, and JavaScript. However, in Java, this term can also refer to &&
and ||
.
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, since the Elvis operator expression A ?: B
is approximately equivalent to the ternary conditional expression A ? A : B
.