State Reform School for Boys

State Reform School for Boys
As seen from 1848 to 1852
Westborough Location of State Reform School
General information
Status	Closed
Type	Institutional
Location	Westborough, Massachusetts
Country	United States
Coordinates	42°18′03″N71°36′32″W / 42.300698°N 71.608960°W / 42.300698; -71.608960
Construction started	July 1847
Opened	November 1, 1848
Inaugurated	December 7, 1848
Relocated	April 1884
Renovated	1853 / 1877
Closed	April 1884
Cost	$52,000 ($1,479,000 in 2015 dollars)
Renovation cost	$50,000 / $90,000
Owner	State of Massachusetts
Technical details
Material	Foundation-Stone, Exterior-Brick, Roof-Slate
Design and construction
Architect(s)	Elias Carter of Springfield, James Savage of Southborough
Main contractor	Mr. Daniel Davies of Boston
Known for	First publicly funded Reform School in the US

The State Reform School for Boys in Westborough, Massachusetts, was a pioneering state institution dedicated to the reformation of juvenile offenders, operating from its establishment in 1848 until its relocation in 1884. Recognized as the oldest publicly funded reform school ^[1] in the United States, its creation represented a significant social experiment in 19th-century America, embarking on an ambitious endeavor to test whether a structured, state-sponsored environment could effectively redirect "delinquent" youth, impart moral discipline, and prepare them for productive lives within society.

From its inception, the school embodied this grand undertaking in large-scale juvenile rehabilitation. Initially designed for 300 boys, the institution rapidly expanded to accommodate growing demand, quickly becoming overcrowded and challenging its initial premise of individualized reform within a congregate setting. These inherent difficulties were starkly revealed by a devastating fire in 1859, which led the school to explore adaptive approaches, including a novel nautical branch for older boys and the early implementation of a "cottage system" in rebuilt sections, aiming for a more familial, less impersonal environment.

Despite these varied reform efforts, the State Reform School for Boys ultimately faced significant challenges. The nautical branch was later disbanded, and a riot in 1877, coupled with public revelations of cruel punishments, led to widespread outcry and legislative hearings. These events exposed the ethical perils and practical limitations of the prevailing reformatory theories of the time. By 1880, the Massachusetts legislature repurposed the land and buildings for the Westborough Insane Hospital, largely deeming the reform school, in its congregate form, a failed experiment. However, its legacy continued: the State Reform School for Boys was relocated and re-established as the Lyman School for Boys in 1884, fundamentally embracing the cottage system and carrying forward the valuable, albeit difficult, lessons from its complex history as a grand social experiment in juvenile justice.

The dawn of juvenile reform: a national and Massachusetts context

The reform movement for juveniles began in the United States in 1824 with the founding of the House of Refuge in New York City. In 1826, the Philadelphia House of Refuge was built, and in 1827 the House of Reformation for juvenile offenders in Boston was established. These early attempts at reforming child criminals were spawned from work previously done in England and of the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline and for the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders (1815). ^{[2] [3]} In New York, the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism was established in (1818) later reorganized as The Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents (1823). ^[4]

In the mid-19th century, Massachusetts faced significant social challenges that highlighted the urgent need for a new approach to juvenile justice. With a population denser than any of her sister states, and a burgeoning metropolis alongside numerous teeming cities and villages, the Commonwealth wrestled with the "poisonous seeds of vice" that often germinated in crowded urban centers. The influx of foreigners, bringing diverse habits and associations, further complicated the social landscape. Adding to this was the pervasive issue of intemperance, recognized as the "great mother of poverty, and vice, and crime," spreading its lures on every side. It became increasingly clear that Massachusetts could no longer remain true to herself, to the spirit of the age, or to the cause of humanity, if she continued to overlook means of counteracting these detrimental influences.

Those familiar with the criminal courts could not ignore the alarming increase of crime, especially among the young. It was a distressing sight to witness children, often of a tender age and with open, ingenuous countenances, being arraigned alongside hardened villains and receiving the same ignominious punishments. While precise statistics on the number of children under sixteen condemned annually were elusive, approximations painted a grim picture. Reports like Beaumont and De Tocqueville's on the penitentiary system indicated that one in every ten convicts in the United States was under twenty years of age. ^[5] In Massachusetts's own State Prison in 1846, roughly one in sixteen of the 287 inmates were under twenty. A legislative report preceding the establishment of the Reform School revealed that in 1845, 97 children under sixteen were convicted and sentenced to houses of correction across various Massachusetts counties. In Suffolk County alone, during eight months of 1847, 101 boys were committed to the Boston House of Reformation, and within six and a half months of the same year, 55 individuals under twenty were committed to the House of Correction. A conservative estimate suggested at least 300 boys were annually sentenced to prison for crimes in the Commonwealth—a number likely lower than the actual figure. Crucially, before the advent of this school, there was virtually no alternative for these boys beyond the jail or house of correction, presenting a stark choice between a life of idleness and profligacy, or labor that often led to hopeless corruption. ^[6]

The emotional toll on judges was immense; no compassionate person could pronounce a sentence fraught with such fearful consequences upon a boy, knowing that in most cases, it would seal their ruin. Confinement alongside the drunken, the dissolute, the petty thief, and the low villain meant facing a "fatal, deadly contamination" that human nature could scarcely overcome. It was a common sentiment that a shorter sentence in a House of Correction could be even more ruinous than a lengthy one. A boy who stole a few shillings, served a few months, and emerged ready for a wider field of crime, destined for certain destruction. The existing legal framework offered no path to breaking old, harmful associations; instead, it often fostered new ones leading further down the path to ruin. The psychological terrors of such a sentence were considered almost as devastating as the ruin of an immortal soul, yet few truly considered that a child's fate for eternity might hinge on how they were punished for a guilty act. ^[7]

Massachusetts statutory revisions and the evolution of juvenile law

The legal landscape of Massachusetts, particularly concerning its general statutes, has undergone a series of significant revisions and codifications throughout its history. These efforts, periodically mandated by the Massachusetts General Court, aimed to consolidate, clarify, and modernize the existing body of laws. This process dramatically influenced the development of juvenile justice in the Commonwealth, transitioning from fragmented provisions to a comprehensive delinquency code.

Early codifications and their mandate

Prior to 1921, the Massachusetts General Court initiated five major revisions and codifications of the state's Acts and Resolves. These included:

• The Revised Laws of 1836
• The General Statutes of 1860
• The Public Statutes of 1882
• The Revised Laws of 1902
• The General Laws of 1921

These early revisions were characterized by a broad mandate, aiming "for consolidating and arranging the general statutes of the commonwealth." This involved not only combining existing laws but also omitting redundant enactments, rejecting superfluous words, and condensing language for clarity and conciseness. The revisers were also tasked with identifying and suggesting corrections for "mistakes, omissions, inconsistencies, and imperfections" within the existing legal framework. This comprehensive approach ensured a systematic overhaul of the statutes, rather than mere compilation.

The Shift to Continuous Consolidation (Post-1921)

A significant shift occurred in 1932 with the publication of the Tercentenary Edition of the General Laws. Following this, the General Court moved away from periodic, large-scale revisions and instead provided for the "continuous consolidation of the general statutes." This new directive mandated that counsel to the Senate and House of Representatives, "so far as possible, draft all bills for legislation as general statutes in the form of specific amendments of or additions to the General Laws." This fundamentally changed the legislative process, promoting incremental adjustments to an established code rather than wholesale re-codifications.

Evolution of the juvenile code: pre-1906

The development of a distinct juvenile code within these statutes reflects a growing awareness of the unique needs of young offenders.

• Revised Laws of 1836: While lacking a dedicated "juvenile code," this revision included a related enactment that allowed for the incarceration of juveniles meeting specific criteria in facilities other than state prisons. This marked an early recognition of the need for specialized treatment for youthful offenders.
• General Statutes of 1860: This codification introduced two specific chapters focused on the reformation of juvenile offenders:
  • Chapter 76: Pertaining to the State Reform School for Boys.
  • Chapter 75: Addressing the State Industrial School for Girls.
• Public Statutes of 1882: This revision consolidated the provisions from the 1860 statutes into a single chapter, Chapter 89, titled "Of the Lyman School for Boys, the Industrial School for Girls and the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders." This streamlined the framework for juvenile institutions and the handling of young offenders.
• Revised Laws of 1902: Continued to include provisions for juvenile offenders, building upon the framework established in earlier revisions.

The pre-1906 juvenile codes, due to the liberal nature of wording and structural changes in each revision, are best analyzed through a "flashpoint" methodology, examining their substantive provisions (additions, deletions, and changes to carried-over provisions) as they existed at the time of each major codification.

The watershed of 1906: a delinquency code

A pivotal moment in Massachusetts juvenile law was the legislative enactment of St. 1906, c. 413. This statute established for the first time a truly distinct delinquency code, fundamentally different from the essentially criminal codes for juvenile offenders that preceded it. This 1906 enactment was civil in nature, marking a significant philosophical shift in how the state viewed and responded to juvenile misbehavior.

The provisions of the 1906 enactment were subsequently integrated into the General Laws of 1921, the last major recodification of the general statutes. Within the General Laws:

• Material on juvenile delinquency and juvenile offenders was placed in Chapter 119, alongside other provisions concerning the care and protection of children.
• Provisions related to the training schools for juveniles were separately placed in Chapter 120.

The 1906 enactments are considered a watershed moment, serving as the foundation for the present-day juvenile code in Massachusetts. ^[8]

Massachusetts's vision for juvenile reform (1846–1847)

Amidst this challenging social backdrop, a significant movement for juvenile reform began to take shape in Massachusetts in early 1846. Concerned magistrates and citizens of the Commonwealth, including Chief Justice Shaw, brought a petition before the General Court, advocating for the creation of a state institution dedicated to the reformation of juvenile offenders. This appeal spurred the appointment of a committee, chaired by E. Rockwood Hoar (who later became a Supreme Court Justice) to investigate the matter. On February 20, 1846, this committee issued a circular ^[9] containing nine key questions regarding the formation of a reform school, seeking broad public input. The overwhelming responses from citizens unequivocally confirmed the pressing need for such an institution. ^{[note 1]}

Recognizing this critical need and public support, on April 16, 1846, the governor was authorized to appoint three commissioners. The appointed commissioners were Alfred Dwight Foster of Worcester, Robert Rantoul, Senior, of Beverly, and Samuel H. Walley of Roxbury. Their mandate was clear: to acquire suitable land, oversee the construction of a dedicated building, and establish a comprehensive system of governance for what would become the first public institution of its kind in the United States.

A pivotal figure in this nascent movement was Theodore Lyman II, a former mayor of Boston. Lyman, who held a deep interest in juvenile reform and had previously served as president of the board of managers for Thompson Island's reform efforts, actively responded to the committee's circular. His commitment was so profound that he made an initial donation of $30,000 for the purpose of purchasing land and erecting the school building. This extraordinary generosity was later reinforced by an additional $20,000 bequest in his will, solidifying his role as a key benefactor.

By 1847, the appointed commissioners had made substantial progress. They acquired the 180-acre farm of Lovett Peters in Westborough, situated on the north side of Chauncy Lake, for $9,000. Shortly thereafter, the Trustees purchased the farm and additional land across the road for $3,500. Following the school's official opening, an extra 23 acres were acquired from the Warren Farm, located west of the main building, bringing the total landholding to 280 acres.

A crucial milestone in the construction phase occurred on June 15, 1847, when the contract for the main building was awarded to Daniel Davies of Boston, who submitted the lowest bid of $52,000. The contract stipulated a completion date of December 1848. On the very same day, the commissioners officially selected the precise location for the building on the recently acquired 180-acre old Peters Farm, setting the stage for the physical manifestation of Massachusetts's pioneering vision for juvenile reform. ^[10]

The foundational experiment: establishment and early years (1846–1859)

Conception and legislative mandate (1846–1847)

Petitions to general court and appointment of commissioners:

The establishment of the State Juvenile Reform School began with petitions to the General Court of Massachusetts. In response, the legislature appointed commissioners to oversee the project. Their initial report, addressed to Governor George N. Briggs, included: ^[11]

• A draft of a bill relating to the State Juvenile Reform School.
• A draft of a resolve appropriating funds for the school's buildings.
• Plans for the buildings, prepared by architect Isaac Melvin.
• A plan of the farm purchased for the school.
• Communications made to the commissioners.

The commissioners were tasked with selecting a suitable site for a "Manual Labor School, for the employment, instruction, and reformation of juvenile offenders." Key considerations for the location included:

• Central location relative to the population.
• Reasonable cost of living in the area.
• Ease of access.

Theodore Lyman II's Role and Donation:

A significant figure in the school's founding was Theodore Lyman II, a wealthy philanthropist. He donated $72,000 to the project, demonstrating his commitment to the reformation of juvenile offenders. Lyman's contributions helped secure the initial funding and land for the school. ^[12]

Acquisition of Peters Farm and Subsequent Land Purchases:

The commissioners selected the farm of Lovett Peters, located in Westborough, as the site for the school. The farm comprised 180 acres and 105 rods, bordering Chauncey Pond. Its features included: ^[13]

• A varied landscape of woodland, pasture, tillage, and mowing land.
• A well-cultivated farm with over 100 apple trees and other fruit trees.
• A house and barns in good repair.
• Access to both well water and the pond.

The purchase price for Peters Farm was $9,000. The commissioners considered the location ideal due to its:

• Healthful situation and pleasing prospect.
• Good farming neighborhood and relative seclusion.
• Proximity to the Boston and Worcester Railroad depot (2.5 miles).
• Suitable soil and abundant water supply.

The school was initially designed to accommodate 150 boys, with a long-term plan for up to 300. The commissioners emphasized that this was to be a reform school, not a prison, and aimed to create a facility that would promote rehabilitation. The State Reform School for Boys operated from 1848 to 1884.

Architectural design and construction (1847–1848)

Commissioning and early challenges

The initial phase of the project was marked by a slight delay in the commission's organization due to uncertainties surrounding the eligibility of one of its members. However, by May 11, 1847, the commissioners convened in Westborough. They promptly acquired the previously submitted plans and explanations for the proposed buildings from the secretary of the Commonwealth's office. These documents were then handed over to Elias Carter, Esq., of Springfield, and James S. Savage, Esq., of Southborough, both esteemed architects and builders. Their initial task was to estimate the cost of erecting the buildings as per the provided plans, though they had no intention of contracting for the construction themselves.

A subsequent meeting on May 25 revealed a significant hurdle: the estimates from Messrs. Carter & Savage considerably exceeded the legislative appropriation. The architects were asked to revise their calculations, and their report on June 3rd confirmed that the proposed buildings could not be constructed within the allocated budget.

Navigating budget constraints and contract award

Despite the financial limitations, the commissioners interpreted the legislative resolves as an imperative to provide accommodations for three hundred boys. They generally found the existing plans satisfactory and felt justified in proceeding with construction even if the cost surpassed the initial appropriation. However, aware that previous commissioners had assured the legislature that $45,000 would cover all expenses, the current commission took a cautious approach.

They instructed Messrs. Carter & Savage, who were by then engaged to superintend the construction, to offer the contract at the sum of $45,000 to the original architect who drew the plans. This offer was declined, though the architect expressed willingness to submit a bid alongside other builders.

To reduce expenses, several omissions were directed in the original plans. These revised plans and explanations were then submitted to other competent builders. Various offers were received, ranging from $52,000 to $65,000, with the original designer submitting a bid of $62,500.

On June 15, 1847, the contract was ultimately awarded to Mr. Daniel Davies, of Boston, who submitted the lowest offer from a competent and responsible builder. On the same day, the commissioners selected the building site on the farm. ^[14]

Construction progress and future considerations

Construction commenced as soon as practicable and proceeded successfully. By the time of the report, the buildings' walls and roof were erected, and temporary windows were installed to protect the structure from weather damage. The commissioners believed the work had been executed efficiently and to a satisfactory standard given the circumstances. The contract stipulated a completion date of December 1st, though it was anticipated that the work might finish a month or two earlier.

At the behest of various individuals, including the trustees of the reform school, the commissioners later decided to restore certain parts of the building that had initially been omitted to reduce costs. This addition was projected to increase the overall expense by $475.

Several critical aspects remained outside Mr. Davies's contract and required further planning and appropriation:

• Water Supply: Providing an abundant and suitable water supply for a large institution housing many young persons was a significant concern. A deeply dug well yielded mineral-tasting water unsuitable for drinking and culinary uses. Options under consideration included large cisterns to collect rainwater and bringing water via pipes and forcing-engines from a nearby pond.
• Furnishings: The Commissioners understood that they were expected to procure furniture for the superintendent's, steward's, and boys' apartments, an item not included in the previous Legislature's estimate. While the building was designed for three hundred boys, initial furnishing would be for only one hundred. The schoolroom furniture was to be of the "best plain manner," while all other furniture would be "strong, plain, and neat."
• Workshop: Recognizing the uncertainty of initial trades, and the relatively low cost and easy procurement of tools for typical institutional trades, the workshop was proposed to be left unfurnished except for essential apparatus.
• Grading: The contract did not include extensive grading around the buildings, only what was necessary for wall security and leveling the enclosed area. The commissioners anticipated being responsible for making access convenient and leaving the immediate grounds suitable for future cultivation or ornament.

The commissioners emphasized their commitment to practicality and durability over mere ornamentation. They aimed for the most convenient and substantial construction. To cover these necessary additional expenses, including superintendence (which was not increased by employing two gentlemen instead of one) and the commissioners' own expenses, a further appropriation would be required.

Of the $45,000 previously appropriated, $33,000 had already been drawn and expended. The commissioners, aiming for transparent and accurate reporting, estimated that an additional $21,000 would be needed to complete the buildings and prepare them for occupancy.

Erecting the State Reform School

Location and layout

Reform School Elevation Plan

Plan of First Floor

The school buildings are strategically situated on an eminence, offering a southward slope towards Chauncey Pond, approximately 48 rods away and 78 feet above its water level. All structures are interconnected, forming a cohesive complex that encloses a central playground or court. This court, measuring 118 feet long and 84 feet 4 inches wide, features a central shed providing shelter during inclement weather. ^[15]

Architectural design

The buildings' external walls span 160 feet in both the front and rear, and 200 feet on each side, forming a substantial rectangular footprint. The architectural design emphasizes practicality and durability over elaborate ornamentation. The foundations are constructed from stone, with walls of brick, and the roof is slated. While little was expended on mere embellishment, no feature affecting the practical value or permanence of the structures was intentionally omitted.

Building sections:

• Wings: The east and west wings are two stories high.
• Centre Building: This central structure rises to three stories.
• Towers: Two distinct towers, five stories high, mark the building's profile.

Internal layout and facilities:

• Centre Building: Houses the apartments for the superintendent and his family, rooms for other employed persons, the chapel, and the main office. The office's strategic placement, with lighting from the central court, allowed for constant supervision of boys during playtime. Opposite the office are seven solitary dormitories designated for disciplinary purposes.
• East Wing: Contains the apartments for the steward and his family, the main kitchen, washing and ironing rooms, sewing rooms, store rooms, a hospital, and dormitories for the boys.

  

  Plan of Second Floor

• West Wing: Features two large school rooms with adjacent recitation rooms, alongside dormitories configured similarly to those in the east wing.
• Rear Section:
  • Second Story: Dedicated to a large workshop, designed with a movable partition to allow for efficient heating of only occupied areas. Access is via stairs from a corridor opening onto the central court.
  • First Story: Comprises the refectory (connected to the kitchen), an arched passage-way (10 feet wide, serving as an entrance to the court and secured by gates), a room for coal and wood storage, a bathing-room equipped for cold and warm bathing and regular ablutions, and water closets. All water closets connect to a drain that channels all wastewater to a distant reservoir for compost.

Dormitories

The boys' dormitories are designed for individual occupancy, each measuring four feet wide, eight feet long, and seven feet high. Their doors open onto a large hall and feature an upper half composed of vertical iron rods, ensuring both ventilation and constant oversight. Each dormitory is equipped with a ventilating flue connected to the attic, which in turn communicates with the external air via Emerson's ventilators. Those dormitories facing the court have sliding windows made of 6x8 glass, protected by cast-iron guards that correspond to the window sash. For boys not assigned a private dormitory, bunks are provided in the main hall, where an attendant also occupies a bed. Two rooms in each wing, equivalent in size to the dormitories, are dedicated water closets, fitted with apparatus for cleansing and draining waste, intended for night use only.

Water supply and furnishings

The commission initially explored various methods for water supply. Reservoirs were constructed underground to collect rainwater from the buildings. Additionally, a pipe was laid to a well at the farm-house, and arrangements were made to utilize water from a deep well within the main building for specific purposes. These were deemed the most economical solutions, though the commissioners anticipated that experience might reveal their inadequacy.

In 1850 a windmill was installed to drive a force-pump to carry water to the tower tank. While an initial windmill-driven pump had been employed for years to draw water from the pond, it proved inadequate for the institution's needs even prior to building expansion. Consequently, it was replaced in 1853 by a five-horsepower steam engine, which successfully met the water supply demands.

The buildings have been furnished for the superintendent's and steward's families, and for one hundred and five boys. The school-room is equipped with desks and chairs of an approved model; each pupil has a chair, and each desk accommodates two, featuring open ends for books and a permanently set inkstand. The room is warmed by Clark's ventilating stove, creating an inviting and well-fitted learning environment. All other furniture was selected for neatness, comfort, quality, and durability.

Subsequent adjustments

An unforeseen defect was discovered during construction: the external window sashes, designed for 7x9 inch glass, and their corresponding iron guards, proved large enough for boys to escape. This necessitated an unexpected, but crucial, addition of wrought-iron netting to cover each window, adding to the overall expenses.

Conclusion

As the commission approaches the fulfillment of its duties, only a few remaining tasks are left to complete the establishment of the reform school. The long-term effectiveness and overall success of the institution will ultimately be judged by time. ^[16]

The grand opening: dedicating a new epoch (1848)

On the December 7, 1848, Emory Washburn of Lowell gave an address to members of government and many other citizens assembled from the varies portions of the commonwealth at the new Reform School in Westborough. ^[17] Friends, colleagues, distinguished guests, and all who share the vision of a more just and compassionate society, we gather today for an occasion that marks an epoch in the domestic history of our Commonwealth. What we witness here is more than just the dedication of a new building; it's the commencement of a bold experiment, one that embodies the State in its truest and most benevolent relation: that of a parent seeking out her erring children. ^[18]

A new dawn for justice in Massachusetts

Massachusetts has always been a beacon of progress. From planting the first free school to establishing the first institution for ministering to the "mind diseased"—serving rich and poor alike at public charge—our Commonwealth has consistently strived to uplift its citizens. Today, we crown that work by venturing into the "highways and the hedges" to reclaim the wayward, to purify the bitter waters of vice, misery, and crime that have long spread their poisonous influences through our communities. This institution, a testament to both the beneficence of the State and the profound generosity of an anonymous private benefactor who contributed over $22,000, stands as a monument to what is possible when compassion guides our actions. This individual, whose deeds of charity were performed without fanfare, reminds us that the highest reward lies in the "consciousness of the uncounted good which is to flow from them to generations yet unborn." Indeed, what greater satisfaction can there be than seeing "moral beauty springing up beneath his creative touch," transforming the "waste places of God's heritage blossoming into life"?

The evolution of a humane system

To truly appreciate the significance of this moment, we must reflect on the journey of criminal justice. Not so long ago, in what we considered the "civilized world," punishment was characterized by revolting cruelties. The rack, the wheel, public torture, and executions for over 160 offenses were commonplace. The very idea of reforming the guilty was almost entirely absent. Prisons were often pestilential dens, breeding more vice than they cured. As John Howard and Mrs. Elizabeth Fry so powerfully demonstrated, these were places that broke spirits rather than mended them.

Even in our own enlightened Commonwealth, the echoes of a barbaric age persisted. Our ancestors, despite their intellectual prowess, crafted severe legal codes. Public whipping, cropping, and branding were once common sights in every shire town in Massachusetts. The law, with its "stamp of infamy," sent criminals forth as outcasts, ensuring they remained perpetual warnings, "frightening a few, and brutalizing all." The concept of restoration to society was as foreign as finding a leper welcomed at a feast.

A significant stride was made with the introduction of the penitentiary system, pioneered in the United States, particularly in Pennsylvania. This marked a shift from brutal corporal punishment to confinement and labor. However, even this system had its flaws, often failing to properly classify criminals by age or severity of offense. As Sidney Smith observed in 1821, some prisons functioned as "large public schools... for the encouragement of profligacy and vice."

A focus on juvenile offenders: a global movement

Today, we stand at the forefront of a more enlightened approach, particularly concerning our juvenile offenders. For too long, the law has applied arbitrary rules regarding criminal responsibility, treating a child of "tender age" as equally amenable to punishment as a hardened offender. Consider the stark example from England in 1846, where a boy, perhaps as young as six and a half years old, was sentenced to seven years of imprisonment for stealing a mere shilling and a half-penny. Such a system, we can all agree, violates the most fundamental principles of prison discipline and common humanity. Fortunately, this realization has spurred a global movement. Across Germany, France, and parts of Italy, there's a growing commitment to juvenile reform. Institutions dedicated to young offenders, mostly established since 1833, are emerging, emphasizing agricultural and mechanical pursuits, which studies show are most conducive to moral improvement and physical health. Germany alone boasts numerous such facilities: between 15 and 20 in the former kingdom, 22 in Württemberg, 19 in Prussia, 3 in Hanover, and 3 in the Duchy of Baden. England, too, though sometimes lagging, has institutions like Parkhurst that inspire pride.

Understanding crime: a holistic approach

Philosophers and philanthropists have long debated the true purpose of punishment. Is it solely deterrence, or should it prioritize the offender's reformation? Some even suggest crime is a moral disease requiring curative, rather than punitive, measures. The truth, I believe, lies in a balanced approach: punishment should deter crime in society while simultaneously striving to save and restore guilt to usefulness.

Understanding the root causes of crime is essential. Is it innate depravity, an unfortunate cerebral conformation, or the "bad organization of society itself," with its stark contrasts of wealth and poverty? While no single theory holds all the answers, each offers valuable insights. We know the profound influence of education and external circumstances on a child's character. Society, therefore, bears a responsibility to provide positive incentives and suppress negative ones. We cannot allow children to grow up in vice due to a lack of schools, nor can we ignore the destructive impact of intemperance and idleness.

While the primary influences on a child's moral compass remain the family and well-regulated schools, experience shows these alone are not always sufficient to eradicate crime. When home becomes a "scene of filth and wretchedness," and schools are avoided or undermined by "bad associations," the State must step in as a "wise and considerate parent." It must provide the discipline of good schools and religious instruction, remove the contaminations of vicious example, and instill habits of industry and useful employment. Only then can we truly hope for laws to be respected, interests to prosper, and our people to be happy.

A new path: parental correction and hope

Yet so long as there is crime, there must be punishment. When the young, in their precocity of guilt, violate laws essential to societal happiness, they must understand that "the way of the transgressor is hard." Our hope, and indeed our duty, is that punishment in such cases be as parental in character and reformatory in tendency as possible. This is precisely what the discipline of this school is designed to be. Here, the State stands forth not with the rod of a tyrant, but with the subdued severity of a faithful parent. Here, "justice and mercy will meet together, and humanity will rejoice over these children, snatched, like brands from the burning."

If our purposes are accomplished, may these young individuals be relieved from the legal infamy that disqualifies convicted persons from testifying in courts of justice, finding that an honest life is a surer passport to public confidence than an executive pardon.

The auspices under which this institution begins are truly promising. Its location, chosen with judgment, sagacity, and good taste, is amidst a morally eminent community, in a region known for its healthy climate and pure water. Surrounded by natural beauty, yet accessible from all parts of the State, few spots could offer greater advantages. The commissioners have executed their trust with faithfulness and ability, creating an edifice that combines generous taste with functional design. Furthermore, the trustees' selection of the Superintendent, so vital to success, provides an additional guarantee that if this experiment fails, it will be due to inherent challenges, not a lack of interest or capacity from those entrusted with its care.

May this work go prosperously on! May the priceless, immortal souls subjected to human discipline within these walls be purified from their stains and freed from the bondage of vice. We commend this school, its officers, and its inmates to a generous and grateful public, trusting that the future lives of these young individuals, sent here for correction and reform, will prove the crowning glory of an enterprise so auspiciously begun.

Let us not, however, be naïve; difficulties and disappointments are to be anticipated. Human character and conduct are complex. While some, warned by sad experience, may persevere on paths of danger, others will undoubtedly listen to the new lessons of kindness and wisdom taught here, and ultimately stand among the honest and honored in the land. The solicitude with which all are cared for here reflects the spirit of God's providence, where the law extends its sheltering hand to both the righteous and the repentant, guarding them from outrage and oppression.

There is a profound dignity in an institution like this, demonstrating the majesty and humanity of the law itself. Though often unseen, the law guides our nation's affairs while tenderly caring for the most friendless orphan. It speaks with stern rebuke to the guilty but guards them from insult and abuse, holding out the bow of hope even in confinement.

Here, the Law, representing the will of our community, brings the young and wayward for correction and restraint. Like a mother who kisses while she chides, it offers encouragement and the assurance of favor if they prove worthy. It provides this refuge from temptation, these pleasant fields, and bids its servants watch over their temporal and eternal interests, preparing them to share the common heritage of a free and virtuous community.

For this mission—that none whom God has given her should be lost—the Commonwealth, through her Chief Magistrate and honored civil officers, has come here today. In the name of a wise humanity, we bid this institution God-speed! May it be like Bethesda's pool, where the lame and diseased were healed. Let it stand for all time as a monument to the munificence of an unknown benefactor and to the faithfulness with which the noblest of all charities—a free government—has been administered by this, our beloved, our "model" Commonwealth.

Foundational period: 1848–1859

Superintendents:

• William R. Lincoln (1848–53)
• James M. Talcott (1853–57)
• William E. Starr (1857–61) ^[19]

Reform School between 1848–1859

The early to mid-19th century at the State Reform School for Boys in Westborough, Massachusetts, was characterized by a foundational experiment in juvenile rehabilitation. This period saw the rapid development of its operational model, an ever-evolving system of inmate governance, and the practical challenges of running a large institution dedicated to reforming "delinquent" youth through structured daily routines, education, and labor.

Daily regimen and educational program

Boys making chairs in the workshop (1871)

A highly structured daily regimen underpinned life at the Reform School. Inmates began their day at 5 a.m. with morning duties and religious exercises. Breakfast was served from 6 to 7 a.m., followed by a pattern of alternating labor and schooling: work from 7 to 10 a.m., school from 10 a.m. to 12 p.m., lunch and a brief play period from 12 to 1 p.m., another work session from 1 to 4 p.m., and supper and play from 4 to 5 p.m. Evening schooling took place from 5 to 7 p.m., with the period from 7 p.m. to bedtime reserved for examining daily misdemeanors, moral instruction, and devotional exercises.

The School Department implemented a four-grade academic system:

• First Grade: For beginners in reading, spelling, arithmetic fundamentals, geography, and writing.
• Second Grade: For students who could read easy lessons, primarily studying reading, spelling, and practical arithmetic.
• Third Grade: For those reading ordinary passages, taught reading, writing, spelling, practical arithmetic, and grammar.
• Fourth Grade: The most advanced class, pursuing the subjects of the third class along with the History of the United States.

Inmate classification and conduct system

Upon admittance, boys were classified by age, temperance (disposition), education level, and physical abilities. This system informed their grouping in dormitories by age, classrooms by prior education, and work assignments based on their temperance and physical capabilities.

A progressive conduct grading system was central to inmate discipline and motivation, ranging from Grade 1 ("truth and honor," the highest) to Grade 4 (lowest). New admissions started in the third grade, with promotions for good conduct and demotions as punishment. This system applied across all institutional settings—schoolroom, workshop, playground, and farm. Incentives for good behavior included privileges such as excursions on the lake in summer or sledding and skating in winter. These classification and grading systems were designed to adapt as the institution evolved and understanding of best practices in juvenile reform improved.

Labor and vocational training

Ironing in the Laundry Room

Inmates actively participated in the running of the institution, with their labor divided into farming, mechanical, and domestic employments. The belief was that hands-on work would instill discipline and prepare the boys for productive lives, while also contributing to the school's self-sufficiency.

• Domestic Employment: Boys were responsible for tasks such as washing, ironing, and cooking, as well as making and mending their own clothes.
• Farming: The farm was a cornerstone of the work experience, intended to benefit the boys' physical development and knowledge, and crucially, to defray the cost of the Reform School through agricultural output. Farming activities encompassed work on the institution's farm and garden, labor in neighbors' gardens, and other outdoor tasks. A significant duty involved hauling coal; initially, this was a 2.5-mile journey from the Westborough train station, a distance reduced to about 1 mile from the new State Farm Station after the Agricultural Branch Railroad opened to Northborough in 1855.
  • The boys undertook substantial manual labor for the new building's construction, including excavating the cellar, trench walls, and digging/drawing nearly all stones for the cellar walls. This effort resulted in considerable savings for the State. However, these demanding construction tasks significantly increased farm expenses, as tools and an additional team of four oxen were purchased by the farm. Mr. Leach, the steward and farmer, and his assistants were highly praised for accomplishing this vast amount of labor with the boys. Mr. Leach, a long-serving and respected figure, was credited for his positive influence over the inmates.
  • Detailed labor reports from Mr. Leach indicated 23,219 days of boy labor (six hours each). This included significant contributions to the "enlargement" (3,719 days), "town road" (2,746 days), "grounds" (1,111 days), "shop cellar" (183 days), and "steam mill building" (344 days). The majority, 15,117 days, were dedicated to direct farm work, including 1,552 days for permanent improvements like road making and wall construction.
• Mechanical Employment: Two workshops were included in the original building design for vocational training and commodity production. A shoe shop and a sewing and knitting shop were established. The smallest boys typically worked in the sewing shop, producing all necessary clothing and textiles for the institution. Larger boys were taught to manufacture and repair shoes and boots for internal use and sale.
  • By 1852, the shoe shop operations were contracted out to a local business, which provided materials and oversight, paying the State 10 cents per boy per day, with no direct compensation for the boys. However, by 1855, shoe-making significantly declined due to reduced demand, and sewing and knitting labor also decreased. To maintain employment, a chair seating department was added in 1856, with 111 boys producing 27,000 seats and 2,100 backs that year.

Governance and administration of the experiment

This outlines the foundational structure, operational procedures, and daily routines governing the State Reform School, as derived from its established by-laws. It details the roles and responsibilities of its governing board of trustees, various officers, and the expectations for both staff and the boys under their care. ^[20]

The legislature would appropriate yearly budgets for the institution, appropriate special budgets and pass general laws regarding the reform school based upon recommendations of the Trustees and Superintendent.

The governor would appoint trustees and board members.

The Board of State Charities would investigate and supervise the whole system of public charitable and correctional institutions of the State and make such recommendations, changes and additional provisions as they may deem necessary for the economical and efficient administration of those institutions. ^{[21] [note 2]}

Board of trustees: oversight and leadership

The board of trustees serves as the primary governing body of the State Reform School, ensuring its proper functioning and adherence to its mission. The seven member volunteer board would hire superintendents and other officers, make monthly visits and hold monthly meetings to review the operations of the institutions. They would manage the Lyman and Mary Lamb funds for the betterment of the institution. Make recommendations to the legislature regarding funding and additional laws that may be warranted. Transfer inmates between charitable institutions and coordinate the selection of inmates and masters for the indentured servant program.

Organization and appointments

Following the annual appointment of its members by the governor's commission, the board of trustees must organize promptly. The trustee named first in the governor's commission is responsible for calling the initial organizational meeting. During this crucial meeting, the board appoints a chairman, a secretary, and an executive committee comprising three Trustees.

Should the first-named Trustee be unable to fulfill their duties due to death, sickness, or absence, the next-named Trustee assumes their responsibilities until the board officially appoints a new chairman at its subsequent meeting.

Roles of the chairman and secretary

• Chairman: The chairman is empowered to convene board meetings whenever deemed expedient or upon the request of any two Trustees. They preside over all meetings and act as the central point of contact for all communications related to the school's affairs, both receiving and preparing them.
• Secretary: The secretary is responsible for maintaining accurate records of all Board proceedings. Their duties also include preparing or overseeing the preparation of all documents, statements, and notices as directed by the board or the chairman. Furthermore, the secretary must provide written notice of all meetings to each trustee.

Officers of the institution: roles and compensation

The board of trustees appoints a specific set of officers to manage the daily operations of the State Reform School. These officers serve at the pleasure of the board and are expected to provide at least six months' notice before resigning.

Appointed positions

The following key officers are appointed by the trustees:

• Superintendent
• Steward
• Chaplain and teacher
• Matron
• Watchman
• Treasurer of the board
• Such assistants as deemed necessary.

Established salaries

The by-laws stipulate the following annual salaries for the primary officers:

• Superintendent: $800 per annum
• Chaplain and Teacher: $600 per annum
• Steward: A sum not exceeding $400 per annum
• Matron: A sum not exceeding $4 per week
• The treasurer of the board, if also commissioned by the governor as the institution's treasurer, receives an additional salary of $200 per annum for their combined services.

Duties of key officers

Each officer at the State Reform School has distinct responsibilities crucial to the institution's effective operation and the well-being of its boys.

Superintendent: overall management and correspondence

Beyond the requirements of the State Reform School Act, the Superintendent plays a central role in the institution's daily administration.

• Correspondence: The Superintendent is responsible for all correspondence concerning the boys, meticulously filing all incoming letters and retaining copies of all outgoing communications.
• Daily Register: They are also tasked with keeping a daily register of the weather.
• Staffing: In conjunction with the executive committee, the Superintendent is authorized to employ suitable assistants, subject to Board approval. With the executive committee's advice, they may also discharge employed personnel if deemed necessary.
• Regulations: The Superintendent must report to the Trustees for their approval all necessary or convenient regulations regarding the distribution of duties among institutional employees.
• General Service: They are expected to be ready at all times to perform any services required by the Trustees, provided these are consistent with their prescribed duties.

Steward: farm management and procurement

The steward primarily functions as the institution's farmer, overseeing all agricultural aspects.

• Farm Management: The Steward is in charge of farm implements, cattle, and other necessary articles, and is responsible for their economical use.
• Purchases and Labor: Under the Superintendent's direction, they make all required purchases and handle the engaging and discharging of temporary adult farm labor.
• Record Keeping: The Steward is required to maintain accurate and methodical accounts of all farm-related receipts and expenditures, as well as records of all labor performed by the boys on the farm.
• General Service: They must be prepared to perform any services required by the Superintendent at all times.

Chaplain and teacher: spiritual and academic guidance

The chaplain and teacher holds a dual role, nurturing both the spiritual and intellectual development of the boys.

• Religious Observances: They conduct religious worship in the chapel on Sabbaths and other designated religious days, as well as leading morning and evening devotional exercises.
• Instruction: As a Teacher, they are responsible for instructing the boys in reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and other necessary branches for at least four hours daily. They are expected to maintain a social and familiar demeanor with the boys while also demonstrating the decision and energy required to command respect and obedience.
• Recreation: The Chaplain and Teacher directs the boys' recreation and amusement, ensuring a proper spirit is manifested and that no improper plays are indulged in.
• Superintendent Assistance: They assist the Superintendent in all suitable ways in managing the house and, in the Superintendent's sickness or absence, perform their duties if no other person is appointed.
• Additional Services: They perform any other services related to moral and religious instruction and the institution's interest as authorized and requested by the Superintendent.

Matron: domestic operations

The matron is responsible for the general domestic concerns of the institution.

• Cleanliness and Order: She ensures the cleanliness and good order of all apartments.
• Household Management: She has care and general direction over sewing, clothing, bedding, washing, ironing, cooking, and baking.
• Staff Supervision: The Matron oversees female assistants, ensuring they are faithful, diligent, discreet, regular in their deportment, and adhere to all institution regulations.
• Sick Care and Reporting: She ensures the sick receive proper attention and immediately reports to the Superintendent any unfaithful female assistant or those guilty of abuse of trust or neglect of duty.
• Extraordinary Services: She is ready to perform any extraordinary services required by the Superintendent.

Watchman: security and fire safety

The watchman is crucial for maintaining the security of the buildings and guarding against fire.

• Patrol: Under the Superintendent's direction, the Watchman conducts regular patrols throughout and around the building to observe occurrences and detect fire hazards.
• Fires and Lighting: They attend to fires and are permitted to use a light only in a lantern.
• Fire Response: The Watchman must exert utmost vigilance against fires. If a fire is discovered, they must immediately notify the Superintendent and other officers and assistants, but should not give a general alarm until ordered by the Superintendent.
• Bell Ringing: They ring the bell in the morning and at other times as directed by the Superintendent.
• General Services: They perform all other services required by the Superintendent.

Treasurer of the board: financial custody

The treasurer of the board is responsible for the institution's finances.

• Fund Management: They have custody and charge of the Trust Fund, maintaining full and accurate accounts related to it.
• Investment and Expenditure: The treasurer must conform to the Board's directions when investing, keeping, and expending the proceeds of the fund.

Daily life: labor, instruction, and discipline

The daily routine at the State Reform School is structured around labor, instruction, and discipline, with a clear schedule for the boys.

Division of time

Except for the Sabbath, the general daily division of time for the boys is as follows:

• Labor: Six hours
• School: Four hours
• Sleep: Eight and a half hours
• Devotional exercises, incidental duties, and recreation: Four and a half hours

Daily schedule

• Rising: Five o'clock in the morning, except in December, January, and February, when it is half-past five.
• Bedtime: Half-past eight o'clock P.M. throughout the year.

Discipline

Strict adherence to rules and immediate reporting are emphasized for maintaining order.

• Disobedience: Should a boy refuse or hesitate to obey, they are to be admonished and informed of the consequences. If persistence continues, the officer must immediately send for the Superintendent. If the Superintendent is absent, the boy is placed in the lodge, and the case reported as soon as possible.
• Superintendent Permission: No officer or regularly employed person may be absent from the premises without the Superintendent's permission.
• Boy Supervision: Every boy must be in the charge of a responsible person at all times, unless permitted to be at large by the Superintendent. Any authorized person taking a boy from the house or yard is responsible for their safekeeping until returned or entrusted to another authorized person.
• Keys: No officer or other person shall ever permit a boy to receive or examine their keys.
• Full-Time Devotion: All employed individuals, regardless of capacity, are required to dedicate their entire time to performing duties enjoined by the by-laws or required by the Superintendent.

Miscellaneous regulations: conduct and employment

A set of miscellaneous regulations governs the conduct of all persons employed at the institution and their terms of employment.

Conduct and demeanor

• Devotional attendance: All healthy employees who can be spared from their duties must attend daily devotional exercises and Sabbath religious services, unless specially granted leave of absence.
• Officer demeanor: Officers and assistants must ensure their demeanor during services is strictly becoming and worthy of imitation.
• Chapel services: All arrangements made by the Superintendent regarding chapel services must be faithfully carried out by other officers and attendants.
• Prohibited substances: No officer or attendant, while connected with the institution, shall at any time use intoxicating liquor of any kind, at home or abroad. Similarly, no one shall use tobacco, or smoke a cigar or pipe about the premises.
• Morning rise: All persons with duties to perform must rise in the morning at the ringing of the bell.

Employment terms

• Engagement period: All persons who agree to perform services at the institution are considered engaged for one year, unless a special contract for a longer or shorter time is made.
• Notice of discontinuation: No person thus employed shall discontinue service at or after the expiration of the agreed year or time without giving the superintendent or trustee at least thirty days' notice of their intention to do so.
• Strict conformity: All persons employed in or about the institution's buildings are required to conform strictly to all rules and regulations, and at all times to speak and conduct themselves in a manner worthy of imitation

Key officials and terms of service

The following lists detail the individuals who served in these key administrative roles, highlighting their terms of service.

Governors

• George N. Briggs (Whig) - 1844–1851 (He was governor in 1848 and continued until 1851)
• George S. Boutwell (Democratic) - 1851–1853
• John H. Clifford (Whig) - 1853–1854
• Emory Washburn (Whig) - 1854–1855
• Henry J. Gardner (Know Nothing) - 1855–1858
• Nathaniel P. Banks (Republican) - 1858–1861
• John A. Andrew (Republican) - 1861–1866
• Alexander H. Bullock (Republican) - 1866–1869
• William Claflin (Republican) - 1869–1872
• William B. Washburn (Republican) - 1872–1874
• Thomas Talbot (Republican) - 1874–1875 (first term)
• William Gaston (Democratic) - 1875–1876
• Alexander H. Rice (Republican) - 1876–1879
• Thomas Talbot (Republican) - 1879–1880 (second term)
• John D. Long (Republican) - 1880–1883
• Benjamin F. Butler (Democratic, National) - 1883–1884
• George D. Robinson (Republican) - 1884–1887 (He became governor in 1884 and continued until 1887)

Board of Trustees ^[22]

• Nahum Fisher, Westborough, 1847–1849
• John W. Graves, Lowell, 1847–1849
• Samuel Williston, Easthampton, 1847–1853
• Thomas A. Green, New Bedford, 1847–1860
• Otis Adams, Grafton, 1847–1851
• George Denney, Westborough, 1847–1851
• William P. Andrews, Boston, 1847–1851
• William Livingston, Lowell, 1849–1851
• Russell A. Gibbs, Lanesborough, 1849–1853
• George H. Kuhn, Boston, 1851–1855
• J. B. French, Lowell, 1851–1854
• Daniel H. Forbes, Westborough, 1851–1854
• Edward B. Bigelow, Grafton, 1851–1855
• J. W. H. Page, New Bedford, 1853–1856
• Harvey Dodge, Sutton, 1853–1867
• G. Howland Shaw, Boston, 1854–1856
• Henry W. Cushman, Bernardston, 1854–1860
• Albeit H. Nelson, Woburn, 1855–1855
• Joseph A. Fitch, Hopkinton, 1855–1858
• Parley Hammond, Worcester, 1855–1860
• Simon Brown, Concord, 1856–1860
• John A. Fayerweather, Westborough, 1856–1859
• Josiah H Temple, Framingham, 1857–1860
• Judson S. Brown, Fitchburg, 1858–1860
• Theodore Lyman, Brookline, 1859–1860
• George C. Davis, Northborough, 1860–1873
• Carver Hotchkiss, Shelburne, 1860–1863
• Julius A. Palmer, Boston, 1860–1862
• Henry Chickering, Pittsfield, 1860–1869
• George W. Bentley, Worcester, 1860–1861
• Alden Leland, Holliston, 1860–1864
• Pliny Nickerson, Boston, 1861–1868
• Samuel G. Howe, Boston, 1861–1863
• Benjamin Boynton, Westborough, 1862–1864
• J. H. Stephenson, Boston, 1863–1866
• John Ayres, Charlestown, 1863–1867
• A. E. Goodnow, Worcester, 1864–1874
• Isaac Ames, Haverhill, 1864–1865
• Jones S. Davis, Holyoke, 1865–1868
• Joseph A. Pond, Brighton, 1866–1867
• Stephen G. Deblois, Boston, 1867–1878
• John Ayers, Medford, 1868–1874
• Harmon Hall, Saugus, 1868–1871
• L. L. Goodspeed, Bridgewater, 1868–1872
• L. A. Hubbard, Springfield, 1869–1877
• Lucius W. Pond, Worcester, 1875
• John W. Olmstead, Boston, 1871–1873
• Moses H. Sargent, Newton, 1872–1877
• A. S. Woodworth, Boston, 1873–1876
• Edwin B. Harvey, Westborough, 1873–1878
• W. H. Baldwin, Boston, 1874–1876
• John L. Cummings, Ashburnham, 1875–1879
• Jackson B. Swett, Haverhill, 1876–1878
• Samuel R. Heywood, Worcester, 1877–1879
• Milo Hildreth, Northborough, 1867–1879
• Lyman Belknap, Westborough, 1878–1879
• Franklin Williams, Boston, 1878–1879
• Robert Couch, Newburyport, 1878–1879
• John T. Clark, Boston, 1879–1879
• M. J. Flatley, Boston, 1879–1881
• Adelaide A. Calkins, Springfield, 1879–1880
• Lyman Belknap, Westborough, 1879–1884
• Anne B. Richardson, Lowell, 1879–1886
• Milo Hildreth, Northborough, 1879–1884
• George W. Johnson, Brookfield, 1880–1884
• Samuel R. Heywood, Worcester, 1881–1884
• Elizabeth C. Putnam, Boston, 1884
• Thomas Dwight, Boston, 1884–1886
• J. J. Conner, Westborough, 1884
• Elizabeth G. Evans, Holyoke, 1884
• M. H. Walker, Boston, 1884

Superintendent ^[23]

• 1848 - 1853: William R. Lincoln
• 1853 - 1857: James M. Talcott
• 1857 - 1861: William E. Starr
• 1861 - 1867: Joseph A. Allen
• 1867 - 1868: Orville K. Hutchinson
• 1868 - May 1873: Benjamin Evans
• May 1873 - August 1878: Allen G. Shepherd
• August 1878 - December 1880: Luther H. Sheldon
• December 1880 - October 1881: Edmund T. Dooley
• October 1881 - April 1885: Joseph A. Allen

Early challenges and adaptive strategies (1850s–1870s)

Original building with expansion

Persistent overcrowding and advocacy for expansion

Despite its success, the school was consistently "filled to overflowing" for the majority of the year 1850, often accommodating a number of inmates far exceeding its proper capacity. This urgent demand forced the Executive Committee of the Board to issue notices in September, temporarily halting further admissions due to a critical lack of space. Consequently, many boys deemed suitable for the institution's rehabilitative discipline were regrettably sent to "houses of correction" or left without intervention, "to infest the streets and places of public resort." ^[24]

The Trustees, recognizing the profound moral and economic benefits that the school had already delivered through its influence on over five hundred admitted boys, strongly advocated for expansion. They believed it was equally vital to extend these influences to the "other five hundred, more or less," who could not currently be accommodated. Their inquiries led to the conviction that the existing establishment could be enlarged to nearly double its capacity without a proportional increase in staff or other operational costs, an efficiency they argued would not be possible if a separate, independent institution were to be established. They respectfully urged the government to give "careful consideration" to this proposed enlargement

Legislative action

A significant expansion, aiming to bolster its capacity and providing enhanced remedial accommodation for the boys under its care. This enlargement project was set in motion by legislative action in March 1852, which provided the necessary funding and entrusted the board of trustees with the critical duty of superintending and directing the construction of the required new buildings. ^[25]

Following the legislative mandate, a special meeting of the board of trustees was convened in April 1852. During this meeting, various architectural plans for the proposed expansion were presented by different architects. After careful consideration, the Trustees selected the most suitable plan, and advertisements soliciting proposals from contractors were promptly issued.

The committee overseeing the expansion project proceeded with considerable promptness despite prevailing circumstances. By June 1852, construction officially commenced.

A report submitted in 1853 by Edward Lamb, Esq., the Superintendent of the work, provided an update on the progress and current condition of the new building. According to Lamb's report, the walls of the building are now erected, the roof has been installed and is nearly slated, a portion of the windows are in place, and a small section of the interior has been plastered. ^[26]

Lamb noted that due to the approaching colder season and the potential for frost to damage plastering, as well as the anticipated shrinkage of timber and settling of the building, it was deemed advisable to defer the remaining plastering work until the warming fixtures are introduced. Despite these considerations and challenges such as the initial late start, a period of drought, and a high demand for skilled workmen in areas where construction materials are being prepared, the Superintendent affirmed that the work has progressed as rapidly as could be reasonably expected.

Under the terms of the contract, the new structure is slated to be completed and ready for occupancy by November 1854. The board of trustees expresses confidence that, based on current progress and the dedication of those involved, there is no discernible reason why the building should not be finished and available by the stipulated date.

Building specifications and features

The reform school underwent significant expansion and development, highlighted by a substantial new chapel and large addition. The new structure boasts impressive dimensions, measuring 225 feet in length (front and rear) and 200 feet on its easterly end. It was designed to house 250 boys, along with the necessary officers and assistants required for their care, instruction, and training.

The building's interior was thoughtfully laid out to support the school's mission:

• Chapel: The chapel was completed along with the addition of 1854. Conveniently located between the original building and the new addition it was easily accessed from either department. It was large enough to accommodate 600 boys with a balcony area. The chapel was heated by a furnace, it was well ventilated and lighted with large windows supplied with blinds and furnished with comfortable settees. The chapel was used for the morning devotional exercises, for the Sunday school  and worship. Every Sunday the reform school would send a carriage to the village of Westborough to transport chaplains from different churches and faiths to help conduct Sunday school at the chapel.
• School-rooms: Several commodious school-rooms were incorporated to facilitate the educational programs offered at the school.
• Hospital Department: An ample and well-arranged hospital department was established, designed to meet the probable medical needs of the school under ordinary circumstances.
• The third department: The third department was an area of the new building created to house the more hardened, boys segregated and isolated from the others. The third department consisted of 20 cells (lodges) and a workshop. The boys in the third department would work 8 hours a day in the workshop and for the rest of the day and night would be spent in their "lodge" where they would eat, read and sleep except twice a day they would be taken to the yard when no other boys were present. The discipline in this department was stricter than the other departments but the food was the same as the other boys are fed. Time spent in the lodge was determined by the individual boys behavior.

Cost and funding

The total cost for the construction of the building and its fixtures amounted to $54,752.53. This figure does not include the substantial amount of labor contributed by the boys residing at the institution or the use of the school's teams.

Funding for the project primarily came from the Lyman Fund, which provided $50,000. The remaining balance of $4,752.53 was anticipated to be covered by future appropriations from the state legislature.

Dedication ceremony

The completion of the new building was marked by a dedication ceremony on November 3, 1854. The event featured "appropriate exercises," including an "eloquent Address" delivered by Nathaniel P. Banks, Jr. The ceremony was attended by a large and distinguished gathering of individuals, including state officials, prominent citizens interested in similar institutions, and numerous residents from Westborough and the surrounding area who supported the school's mission. Their presence underscored the community's interest in and commitment to the welfare and rehabilitation of the boys at the State Reform  School. ^[27]

The Westborough Experimental Farm (1854–1857)

Artist rendering of the Reform School showing the farm barn and agricultural landscape

The Massachusetts Board of Agriculture's Experimental Farm was an agricultural research and demonstration farm operated by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture in conjunction with the State Reform School at Westborough during the mid-19th century. Established in 1854, the farm aimed to advance agricultural science and practice in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts through systematic experimentation and improved cultivation methods, while also providing vocational training and employment for the juvenile offenders housed at the Reform School. ^[28]

Establishment and purpose

Prior to 1854, the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture recognized a significant need for "reliable and accurate experiments in Agriculture." While individual farmers conducted valuable, sometimes costly, experiments, there was a lack of coordinated effort, leading to a "confusion of ideas respecting the many questions still remaining to be answered in agricultural science." To address this, the board sought a suitable tract of land with varied soils to conduct systematic experiments and serve the needs of the farming community.

The board identified the farm connected with the State Reform School at Westborough as ideal for this purpose. The State Reform School had (approximately 285 acres) to provide milk, vegetables, and other agricultural products, as well as healthful employment for its inmates. However, the trustees of the Reform School, while excellent in overseeing the school, often lacked expertise in agriculture, and managing the farm had become a hindrance to their primary duties.

Recognizing the mutual benefits, a joint committee from the Board of Agriculture and the Trustees of the State Reform School petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature for an act to transfer the farm's management to the Board of Agriculture. Their petition highlighted the Board of Agriculture's composition of "men of science and men of practical skill in agriculture" and the availability of a "competent, faithful and zealous Secretary, well skilled both in the theory and practice of agriculture."

Legislative authorization and transfer

On February 27, 1854, the Massachusetts Legislature passed an act authorizing the Trustees of the State Reform School to place all or part of the Westborough lands under the charge of the State Board of Agriculture for a term not exceeding ten years. The act also granted an appropriation of up to six thousand dollars for permanent improvements, agricultural experiments, and ordinary expenses of the farm for the current year.

Following the act's passage, committees from both Boards met at the Westborough farm on March 24, 1854, to formalize the transfer. A contract was signed, outlining the terms of the arrangement:

• Transfer of Property: The State Reform School transferred all lands and tenements (except for a portion reserved for the school's immediate use, including specific buildings like the main building, store-house, and Peters House), as well as livestock, implements, and personal property, to the Board of Agriculture.
• Purpose: The agreement aimed to relieve the Reform School Trustees of agricultural management, provide an experimental farm for the Board of Agriculture, and offer greater facilities for the employment and instruction of Reform School inmates in agriculture and horticulture, aligning with the vision of the institution's founder, General Theodore Lyman.
• Operational Agreement:
  • The Board of Agriculture would manage all farming operations, including teaming and transportation for the school (except persons), furnishing milk, vegetables, and other farm products to the school, providing water via an engine, performing grinding and sawing, and supplying competent overseers and instructors for the boys working on the farm.
  • The State Reform School would furnish boys to work on the farm as required, and provide offal from the institution to the Board of Agriculture.
• Financial Terms: Both Boards would keep accurate accounts, with annual adjustments and cash payments. The Reform School would charge for offal and for each boy's labor (ten cents per six-hour day). The Board of Agriculture would charge for services like water pumping, grinding, sawing, teaming, and agricultural products supplied to the school.
• Duration and Modification: The arrangement was set for a term of five years, starting April 1, 1854, subject to modifications by mutual agreement or annulment by the legislature.

Farm management and early operations

At a meeting on April 11, 1854, the Board of Agriculture formally accepted the legislative act and approved the contract. They adopted a series of By-Laws to govern the farm:

• Superintending Committee: An eight-member Superintending Committee, including the secretary, was to be elected annually. Their duty was to meet monthly at the farm, make arrangements, and give directions to the farmer. They were also responsible for reporting their doings quarterly to the board. This committee could form subcommittees, which would keep detailed records of cultivation, draining, manuring, crop yields, and experimental results.
• Secretary's Role: The secretary was tasked with notifying members of meetings, calling committees, keeping a journal of proceedings, handling correspondence, and preparing documents related to the farm's financial concerns.
• Farmer's Responsibilities: The Superintending Committee would appoint a farmer responsible for all farming operations, general improvements, and stock purchases as directed. The farmer would also manage adult help, coordinate daily work assignments for the boys with the Reform School Superintendent, oversee the boys on the farm, and ensure strict observance of discipline rules. The farmer was also responsible for transportation of supplies for the school and keeping accurate financial accounts and labor records.
• Financial Oversight: A finance committee of three persons would approve drafts and bills for payment. An Audit Committee of three persons would examine and audit accounts annually.

Notable members appointed to the first Superintending Committee included M. P. Wilder, B. V. French, Simon Brown, Moses Newell, H. W. Clapp, J. A. Nash, John Brooks, and Seth Sprague. Subcommittees were formed for general improvements, farm arrangements, plans, stock, crops/fertilizers, and labor.

The initial year of operation (1854) faced challenges due to the late start in the season, which significantly advanced before plans could be fully implemented. The primary focus remained on meeting the needs of the Reform School for produce. The Board explicitly stated they had no intention of creating a "model farm," but rather aimed for practical cultivation with a portion dedicated to carefully conducted experiments to answer specific agricultural questions. Due to the unknown character of the soil and previous treatment, and the compressed work schedule, only a few experiments could be undertaken in the first year.

Challenges and future plans

Early reports indicated that the farm, despite its initial promise, faced geographical and structural limitations. The "ill-shapen" layout and the barn's inconvenient location, far from the center of the farm, led to significant expense in hauling manure, hay, and driving cattle. This prompted the Superintending Committee to recommend the immediate purchase of adjoining land to improve the farm's shape, bring more tillage land closer to the barn, and increase resources to meet the growing demands of the Reform School (which was expanding to accommodate 550-600 inmates). The committee also noted the inadequacy of existing farm buildings, including the farm house, which necessitated boarding out workmen.

Detailed observations on the farm's stock revealed insights into dairy practices, including average weight loss in cows between evening and morning weightings, and daily milk production relative to cow weight and days after calving. These early data points foreshadowed the Board's commitment to scientific inquiry and data collection in their agricultural experiments.

In 1855, the agreement was modified to specify that 150 boys would be employed on the farm each workday during the season. In the first couple of years of the management of the farm the boys were primarily used for permanent improvements to the farm, that were desperately needed. By 1857 200 boys a day was employed on the farm and they were instructed in the details of practical farming. ^{[29] [30]}

A "Stone Elevator", used for lifting and moving heavy rocks on the farm

The daily work of the boys would include removing stones, building stone walls, trenching the gardens and hauling coal from the train station in the village of Westborough. In 1855, a large reservoir was required for the waste disposal of the institution. Periodically this reservoir would be drained and the solids would be removed and made into liquid fertilizer to be spread on the hay field. Over the five years, the boys would be involved in creating gravel walkways, setting apple and pear trees as well as the daily chores in the operations of the gardens and livestock.

During this period, the Department of Agriculture paid for and built a, combination piggery, slaughterhouse and store house; a granary and sheds. The piggery gained negative attention in the farming community for its perceived extravagance expense. ^[32]

Over the five-years the Board of Agriculture had management, the capacity of the farm was increased considerably. Produce, milk, pork and beef output were all increased with a recommendation of purchasing additional dairy cattle. It was found, however, that over this five-years the expenses of running the farm were greater than would be considered normal for a regular farm because of the use and instruction of child labor. ^[33] In 1864 the farm was declared, by the Board of State Charities, to be too large to be profitable and always was a financial burden to the institution. ^{[34] [note 3]}

Hereford cow "Milton"

The Hereford cow “Milton,” owned by the State, and kept at the State Farm, at Westborough. This is, probably, the best animal of this breed in the country. She received the first prize of one hundred dollars at the exhibition of the National Agricultural Society, in Boston, in October, 1855, being at that time just five years old. She was bred in England, and imported by Mr. Dowley, of Vermont, in 1852. The calf by her side, “Cronkill II,” sired by “Cronkill,” which also received a first prize of one hundred dollars at the National Exhibition, at Boston, is now three months old. ^[35]

The Westborough Experimental Farm represented a pioneering effort in Massachusetts to apply scientific methods to agriculture and integrate vocational training for a vulnerable population. Its operations aimed to provide practical benefits to both the Reform School and the broader farming community, laying groundwork for future agricultural research initiatives in the state.

Mortality and legacy: the reform school cemetery, 1858–1884

The Reform School Cemetery was established in 1858, primarily serving as the final resting place for boys who died while in state custody and whose remains were not claimed by their parents or relatives. The cemetery was officially laid out and graded, with a receiving tomb constructed and a gravel walk encircling the lot. This burial ground was actively used from 1858 until 1884. ^[36]

Burial practices

Prior to interment, a funeral service was conducted in the chapel of the Reform School, attended by the other boys from the institution. Following the service, the coffin was loaded onto a wagon and transported a notable distance from the main building to the cemetery for burial.

Mortality and interments

Between 1848 and 1884, a total of 79 boys died while under the care and custody of the state reform school. ^{[37] [note 4]}

The following named boys were interred in the cemetery between 1858 and 1884:

• Samuel Thomson: Died on June 10, 1858, from consumption. ^[38]
• George D. Ames: Died on January 18, 1874, after a brief illness. ^[39]
• James T. Washington: Once enslaved, he died on December 4, 1874, from consumption. ^[40]
• Thomas Gartland: Died on January 15, 1876, by suicide. ^[41]

Despite the four boys interred, six coffins were purchased for burials between 1855 and 1884, and three gravestones were acquired in 1878. ^[42] There is no further record or indication that additional grave markers were purchased or made at the reform school, suggesting that some burials may have been unmarked.

Unclaimed deceased and the Massachusetts Anatomy Act

Beyond those interred in the cemetery, several named boys died between 1848 and 1884 but are not listed as being buried there. These include:

• Abner T. Wells: Died October 19, 1874, of a hereditary disease.
• James F. Rigby: Died April 15, 1875, of a hereditary disease.
• Fred Miller: Died October 13, 1879, of anemia.
• Jeremiah J. McConologue: Died March 7, 1879, of necrosis.
• Patrick Donovan: Died February 7, 1880, of diabetes mellitus.
• John Gethin: Died April 23, 1881, of endocarditis.
• Walter Shepard: Died September 15, 1884, of an "exceedingly violent sickness."

There were 68 unnamed boys that died between 1848 and 1884, further highlighting a significant number of deceased individuals whose final resting place, or treatment of their remains, is not explicitly documented as being in the reform school cemetery.

This raises questions in the context of the 1831 Massachusetts Anatomy Act, which aimed to curb grave-robbing by making the bodies of unclaimed individuals who died in almshouses, hospitals, and other state institutions available for dissection by medical schools and physicians. ^[43] Historical practices, such as Harvard Medical School employing Ephraim Littlefield to supply cadavers in 1842, demonstrate the existence of such arrangements. ^[44]

Furthermore, Governor Benjamin Butler, in his inaugural address on January 4, 1883, publicly accused the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of selling the bodies of deceased infants and pauper adults to Harvard Medical College. ^[45] The State Board rebutted these accusations, ^[46] stating they never "sold as merchandise" any infant or adult corpses, but did permit medical schools to receive a "few bodies" of infants and a number of adult bodies for anatomical science under an "ancient statute."

While it is known that Massachusetts state institutions provided their unclaimed dead to medical schools in the 1800s, the exact number of individuals provided over the years may never be fully known. Crucially, there is no indication that the state reform school for boys provided any of the 75 boys who died and were not interned in the cemetery to any medical schools or physicians.

Location

The precise location of the Reform School Cemetery was never definitively recounted in historical records, although some entries in the Annual Reports provide limited insights into its general proximity to the main building. ^{[note 5]}

The 1859 fire: crisis and reassessment

Saturday morning August 13 marks a significant date in the history of the Westborough Reform School, a pivotal institution for juvenile offenders in Massachusetts. On this day, in a devastating act of arson, a substantial portion of the school was destroyed by fire with 572 boys present. ^[47]

The fire, ignited by a boy named Daniel Credan, who had previously assaulted an officer, began in a wooden ventilating flue in the northeastern part of the building. The strong draft quickly carried the flames to the main flue, and from there, to the dry woodwork of the roof. The fire spread with alarming speed, ultimately consuming approximately three-fourths of the structure.

Despite the rapid escalation, the diligent efforts of the school's officers, the boys themselves, and fire departments from neighboring towns managed to save the towers, the west wing, and a section of the workshops. Most of the furniture was also salvaged with minimal damage. The total loss from the fire was estimated to be no more than $50,000.

In the immediate aftermath, 240 of the displaced boys were transferred to the new jail in Fitchburg, while 26 of the less trustworthy individuals were sent to Concord Jail. The remaining 300 boys were temporarily housed in the dormitory that had been spared from the flames.

Following extensive deliberation and consultation with the governor Nathaniel P. Banks, the Trustees of the Westborough Reform School decided to lease a large building in the town of Westborough to accommodate approximately 150 boys. Additionally, plans were made to roof in the standing walls of the school to house the remaining students. These repairs progressed swiftly, and within a few days, all but seven boys (who remained at Concord) were relocated either to the temporary village building or to the newly fitted rooms at the school. Daniel Credan and five of his alleged accomplices were subsequently committed for trial.

Institutional Response and Re-evaluation Post-Fire

The fire prompted the Trustees to clearly articulate the school's mission, its past achievements, and its future potential to the state government, particularly as the rebuilding effort loomed.

The Westborough Reform School was designed as an institution for the reformation of juvenile offenders committed through legal processes. It was explicitly not a prison or a house of correction in the traditional sense, nor was it primarily a place of punishment. The Act of April 9, 1847, which established the school, defined it as a "school for the instruction, employment, and reformation of juvenile offenders." While Mr. Lyman, a key figure in the school's establishment, acknowledged it as a "place of punishment," he clarified that this "punishment" was simply the "degradation of being judged 'not fit to be at large.'" Unlike prison convicts who face explicit punishment as a warning to themselves and others, boys sent to Westborough were "conditionally forgiven." Their committal was seen as an opportunity for training and guidance toward a "straight path." Privileges at the school were earned through reform, and upon proving themselves thoroughly reformed, boys were released "without stigma and without disgrace." Only if a boy proved "incorrigible" was he then subjected to the punishment of being sent to prison.

Since its opening in 1848, the Westborough Reform School had committed 2,537 boys. At the time of the narrative, there were 507 inmates. A "laborious investigation" into the histories of 1,988 former inmates (excluding those deceased or untraceable) revealed significant insights. Of this group, 281 (14.17%) were deemed to have "turned out badly," while a remarkable 1,372 (69%) were known to have done well. The Trustees noted that in all cases of doubt, the doubt was resolved against the institution, suggesting the true success rate might be even higher. Based on a more common calculation method for the 1,653 cases thoroughly investigated, 83% were reformed, and 17% turned out badly. Only 43 former inmates (1.67% of all committals) had subsequently been in the Massachusetts State Prison, a figure reduced to 1.25% when accounting for those remanded to the house of correction after probation.

An analysis of the reasons for commitment showed that approximately 40% were for theft, 43% for "stubbornness," and 14% for assault, vagrancy, disorderly conduct, and malicious mischief. A detailed breakdown of 234 "stubbornness" cases revealed underlying behaviors such as being ungovernable and runaway (truancy, rebellion at home), ungovernable and lying, ungovernable and violent, ungovernable and a thief, and various forms of vagrancy and disorderly conduct. The Trustees acknowledged that a small percentage of boys (around 7% of "stubbornness" cases, or 3% of total committals) might not have been suitable for the institution, particularly those with low intellect or no clear grounds for commitment. However, with the Act of April 3, 1859, magistrates were now required to send a "statement" with each committal, reducing the likelihood of admitting boys who were not truly "juvenile offenders."

Challenges and future recommendations

The trustees identified five primary obstacles hindering the school's effectiveness:

1. Commitment of Boys Who Are Too Old: The existing law allowed boys up to age 16 to be committed. The Trustees strongly recommended lowering this maximum age to fourteen years, citing Mr. Lyman's observation that boys over 14 were "difficult to manage" and more likely to be hardened and negatively influence others. Evidence from state prison records supported this, as 24 of the 31 Westborough graduates in state prison were 14 or older when committed.
2. The Alternative Sentence: This provision, where a boy had a long sentence at the school but a shorter alternative sentence to a prison, was a constant source of trouble. Boys, like Credan, would deliberately misbehave to be remanded to their shorter prison sentence. The Trustees advocated for eliminating the alternative sentence, proposing that incorrigible boys be placed in a "third department" within the school under strict discipline. If all reformation attempts failed, they could then be formally complained of before a court and sent to prison.
3. Difficulty in Vetting Masters for Apprenticeships: Written recommendations from town selectmen were not always sufficient to guarantee a master's good character, or that their family or work-people would provide suitable company for a wayward boy. This posed a "constant annoyance" and highlighted the need for a more reliable system for apprenticing boys.
4. Interference of Parents: Many boys, after leaving the institution, were negatively impacted by the interference of their parents, relatives, or close friends. Selfish motivations often led parents to reclaim boys once they were old enough for profitable work, undermining the reformation achieved at the school.
5. Lack of Means for Proper Classification: The fire, while devastating, presented an opportunity to implement a more effective system of classification within the school. The Trustees had already developed a plan for buildings to house 400 boys, emphasizing both economy and strict separation of different divisions. Previous limited experiments, such as the "third department" for the worst boys and placing some "farm apprentices" outside the main building, had shown encouraging results.

Proposed Classification System:

The Trustees proposed a five-department system to combine the "harmony and economy of the congregate system" with the "separation and strict oversight of the family system":

• Preparatory Department (45 boys): New admissions on trial.
• Farm Department (15 boys): Best boys apprenticed to farmers, engineers, etc., living outside the main building.
• First Department (180 boys): Best boys, divided into three classes, living in buildings but often working on the farm.
• Second Department (135 boys): Inferior boys, divided into two classes, living and working primarily in the buildings.
• Third Department (25 boys): The "worst boys," under strict discipline.

This system would divide boys into smaller divisions (25-70 each), with only 20-35 boys per schoolroom, and strict separation between divisions except during prayers.

The Trustees strongly recommended rebuilding on the old foundations, but with smaller, non-continuous buildings. This approach would be both efficient (ensuring proper separation and care) and economical, utilizing existing foundations, bricks, and utility infrastructure, as well as the 300-acre farm. They also highlighted the cost-effectiveness of a larger school, presenting a table comparing per-head expenses with other reformatories, showing Westborough's efficiency. They also noted Mr. Lyman's original large gifts were specifically for "an institution, or institutions, on the most approved plan," implying flexibility in structure. The consensus was that housing 400 boys would keep the school full and that rebuilding for this number would be more cost-effective than simply clearing the ruins and fitting the unburnt section for fewer boys.

Government response and legislative recommendations

In September 1859, then Governor Nathaniel P. Banks, address the Speaker of the House of Representatives on the destruction of the Westborough Reform School. The governor recommended that the remaining structure should be repaired to accommodate no more than 200 boys and that the family cottage system should be implemented. Additionally a Nautical Branch should be created for the older boys to instruct them in the duties of being seaman. The legislature formed a committee chaired by Martin Brimmer of Boston to take up the matter and on October 12, 1859, the committee's report was forwarded endorsing the governor's position ^{[note 6]}

In the months after the fire little changed in the day-to-day operations of the institution. The farm recently being transferred back to the board of trustees provided work for a good number of boys during the summer months. Two contracts were signed, one for chair seating and one for shoe making allowing for productive work to continue in the workshops. During this time the Sunday school services were held at the Town Hall in Westborough due to the extensive damage to the chapel. Most of the services were conducted by clergy and devoted women in the town of Westborough for the boys of the main building as well as the nursery.

Reimagining reform: the cottage system (1860–1872)

State Reform School as seen 1860–77

With the destruction of three-quarters of the building by fire in 1859, the legislature had the task of deciding what to do with the reform school. With the recommendations of the governor and of a committee formed, the legislature in 1860 appropriated money to build 3 houses and make renovations to the remaining structure as deemed necessary for a new classification system (Resolves 1860, chapters 48 and 128). Additionally, some laws were added to address better governance of the institution as requested by the Trustees.

Superintendents:

• William E. Starr (1857–61)
• Joseph A. Allen (1861–67)
• Orville K. Hutchinson (1867–68)
• Benjamin Evans (1868–73)
• Allen G. Shepard (1874–78) ^[19]

Key reconstruction projects

The primary objectives of this rebuilding phase were multifaceted, focusing on expanding housing capacity, improving infrastructure, and implementing a new "classified system" for the boys.

• Expanded Housing: To address immediate lodging needs, especially with the lease of the village mill (housing 150 boys) expiring in August, work commenced swiftly on two detached farmhouses. The "farm house" was completed and occupied, and another brick Peter’s house, strategically located on the northeast corner of the ruins, was nearing completion. The "Peters house," though authorized for renovation, remained untouched due to it not being needed and its unsuitability.
• Chapel Reconstruction: The chapel was entirely rebuilt and now included a correctional department beneath it, featuring fourteen cells and a workshop. ^[48]

Safety and System Integration: Significant efforts were made to enhance safety and adapt the main building to the new classified system. This included the installation of parapet fire walls and iron-cased doors throughout the main structure, along with additional apparatus to ensure a reliable water supply. Plans for integrating the classified system into the main building had already been drawn, indicating a forward-thinking approach to the institution's future operation.

Family cottages

Dining room in "Peter House" (1871)

The progressive thought of juvenile Reform, in England, in the 1830s was to place 1 to 3 dozen inmates with similar characteristics in separate small houses under the supervision of a surrogate father or mother. The "family" thus created was to work, live, and attend school together, mixing only rarely with the inmates placed in other families. This was a radical departure from "congregate system" that the State Reform School for boys was founded on.

The congregate system is a prison-like facility for housing delinquents in large dormitory areas, bringing them together under strict routines in classrooms, workshops, cafeterias and recreational areas. The main disadvantage of the congregate system is the older, more vicious boys are housed with the younger, more impressionable boys. This disadvantage is overcome with the cottage system. ^{[note 7]}

In the late 1830s, the Colonie de Mettray in France was built on the cottage system.

School room in "Garden House" (1871)

Garden House Dining Room

In the United States, the cottage system was slow to catch on because of the greater expense of land, buildings, and services required, and the supposed increase difficulty of control of the inmates. Eventually, it was introduced with the opening of the Industrial School for Girls in Lancaster Massachusetts (1854) ^{[note 8]} and the Ohio Reform School (1857) which was modeled after the Colonie de Mettray. ^[49]

By an act of the legislature in 1860, three Trust Houses were to be constructed on the school grounds at Westborough. One would be named the "Farmhouse" the second the "Peter's House" and the third would be named the "Garden House". The farmhouse was an existing structure pre-dating the reform school. It would be renovated to house 30 boys, a master and matron. ^{[note 9]} The Peter's house was also an existing structure pre-dating the reform school. It was the home of the original owner of the property. It to was renovated to house 30 boys, a master and a matron. The garden house was a new building built on the ruins of the reform school section destroyed by fire. This was a brick structure intended to house 30 boys with a master and matron.

The daily lives of the boys in the trust houses was intended to be like a large family. The boys, along with the master and matron, would set at the same table to eat their daily meals, which were prepared by the boys under the supervision of the matron. The chores of the house would all be done by the boys. The boys would be schooled by the master in one room of the house. Being employed mostly on the farm they could run away at any time if they so chose, but few of them did. Discipline was more parental in nature there being no physical restraints or confinement.

After the first year of the trial, the trustees were so convinced of the benefits of the cottage system that they recommended to the legislature that two more homes be built and the number of boys housed in each be reduced to 20. ^[50]

The trust houses would remain as the central focus of reforming the younger boys throughout the remaining years of the institution. When the Reform School for Boys closed in 1884 the newly formed Lyman School for Boys was recreated under the cottage system.

New governance for the cottage system

The new system would have all boys, upon committal to the reform school, housed in the old building. Using a credit system for good behavior a boy could earn his way into one of the trust houses. In this way boys that were good candidates for reforming, in a family setting, were transferred to the trust houses and the older more harden boys were kept in the older building and separated according to class.

The legislature also passed a law that year reducing the maximum commitment age from 16 to 14 years old. This was in keeping with the general thought that boys over the age of 14 were less likely to be reformed. They also abolishment of the alternative sentence. The alternative sentence was handed down by the judge at the time of sentencing and was designed to specify a sentence to prison if the boy was incorrigible at the reform school. In practice, however, it was found that in most cases the alternative sentence to prison was of a lesser duration than the reform school, sometimes amounting to only days. Because of this, some boys would act out at the reform school hoping for their alternative sentence to be enacted and for their sentence to be carried out in prison for a few days or weeks instead of the sentence to the reform school throughout their childhood.

Group of boys in yard (1871)

Also enacted was an order that every sentence, to the reform school would be until the age of 18; previously it was 21. At the time, it was thought that the reform process should take upwards to 4 years to thoroughly educate the boys in character, schooling, industry, and labor. Additionally the power to commit inmates was restricted to judges of the Superior and probate courts, and all boys should have legal representation in court provided by the state. It was thought that by limiting the number of judges able to commit boys to the state reform school the number of boys committed for minor offenses would be reduced.

In 1864, the legislature created an agency which they named the Board of State Charities. Its purpose was to make recommendations regarding the management of all of the State prisons, Reform Schools and Almshouses in the State. It was also charged with coordinating transfers between institutions and also managing the indenture of youth in the system. In 1866 and Visiting Agency was incorporated into the Board of State Charities to follow up and visit the indentured. Prior to the establishment of the Visiting Agency, very little information was gathered and kept on those indentured. The children indentured from the State Reform School from 1848 to 1863 was 1283. ^{[note 10]} Approximately half of that number, the master never wrote the board of trustees as to the well-being of their apprentice as required by their contract. ^[51] It was hoped that the Visiting Agent could keep tabs on the indentured children and follow their progress.

The dedication of the new buildings

On October 11, 1860, a dedication ceremony was held in the chapel with 333 boys in attendance. After a dedicatory prayer by the Reverend A.A. Arnold of Westborough, President Felton spoke. ^[52]

In a dedication speech, the speaker reflects on the dual nature of dedicating a State Reform School – a mix of sadness over the necessity of such an institution and joy in the benevolent response to that need. While Massachusetts appears to be a prosperous and virtuous Commonwealth, the speaker acknowledges the pervasive presence of evil, vice, and crime beneath the surface. He poses the enduring question of how to combat these societal ills, noting that crime represents a significant material and spiritual loss to civilization.

The speaker emphasizes the divine basis of law and order, asserting that human laws, though imperfect, reflect God's justice. He contends that criminals, far from being intellectually superior, are often deficient in both moral and common sense, and that crime is ultimately a losing game due to the inexorable consequences of defying divine and human laws. Modern advancements like photography and telegraphy further hinder criminals' ability to escape justice.

The dedication highlights the State's role as a merciful parent to its erring citizens, distinguishing the reform school from a prison by its focus on reformation through education rather than mere punishment. The speaker praises the institution as a "noble and heart-gladdening combination of love, generosity, and wisdom," noting its success in rescuing a high percentage of its inmates from a life of infamy.

The address also pays tribute to Theodore Lyman, a generous benefactor whose anonymous contributions were crucial to the school's establishment. Lyman, described as a true gentleman, dedicated his wealth and wisdom to public good, particularly sympathizing with the suffering of the less fortunate.

Finally, the speaker offers a direct message to the youthful inmates, encouraging them to embrace the opportunity for repentance and virtuous living provided by the school. He expresses hope that their past errors will be overcome, allowing them to become useful citizens and examples of redemption.

The Nautical Experiment: Seafaring as Reform (1860–1872)

Reform school ship Massachusetts

On board the school ship Massachusetts

The Nautical Branch was a foundational component of the institution's educational and vocational training, specifically designed to prepare young boys for a life at sea. Its primary aim was to impart practical seafaring skills and a basic academic education, though its operational methods and effectiveness were subjects of ongoing discussion and evaluation. ^[53]

Establishment of the School Ship Massachusetts

The concept of a Nautical Reform School gained legislative traction in Massachusetts during an extra session in 1859. Following a fire at the Reform School at Westborough, Governor Banks, in his message of September 9th, 1859, advocated for the establishment of a School Ship. This recommendation capitalized on a favorable political climate, as previous attempts in 1856 and later had failed. The joint committee tasked with the matter, notably influenced by a report penned by Hon. Martin Brimmer of Boston on October 12, 1859, enthusiastically supported the measure.

The committee envisioned obtaining an old ship to accommodate 150 boys. The proposed discipline would emulate that of a "well-ordered man-of-war." Beyond seamanship, boys would receive instruction in practical life skills, such as making and mending clothes and shoes, preparing food, and covering ordinary branches of education, with navigation taught "as far as possible."

The legislation, which authorized the purchase of a vessel, was approved by the governor on October 28, 1859. This established the School Ship Massachusetts, though it was considered entirely distinct from the Westborough institution, save for provisions regarding pupil transfers. Soon after the commissioners purchased a schooner the Wave and on June 5, 1860, dedicated both as the nautical branch of the state reform school. In 1861, the Massachusetts was fitted out with four guns and was used as a guard ship for merchant vessels in Boston Harbor. In 1862 the Wave was declared useless and was sold.

In 1865, it was found necessary to acquire another ship, the Massachusetts being found inadequate to accommodate all the boys available. The trustees were authorized to purchase a second ship larger in size than the Massachusetts. Once purchased this ship was named the George M. Barnard and was commissioned in February 1866. In that same year the Massachusetts was permanently moved to New Bedford where it would remain.

Governance and merchant involvement

The governance of the Nautical Branch was unique, as outlined in Chapter 76 of the Revised Statutes. A board of five Trustees was established, with their appointment method designed to foster strong merchant interest in the enterprise. While the governor appointed one trustee annually for a three-year term, the Boston Board of Trade and the Boston Marine Society each annually appointed one trustee for a one-year term, subject to the governor's approval. This structure aimed to invite aid from merchants and shipmasters in both the placement of boys and the overall management of the school.

Unlike Westborough, the Trustees of the Nautical Branch were empowered to discharge boys without requiring shipmasters to provide security for their well-being or conduct. This was likely intended to facilitate the easier shipping of boys, though it was identified as a "defect in the system" that ideally needed to be remedied. The legal provision stated that Trustees could send any boy on a voyage at sea and enter into necessary contracts, which would act as a discharge from the institution.

Financial projections and realities

The legislative committee's initial estimates for the Nautical Reform School were optimistic. They projected that while annual maintenance costs would be comparable to a land-based reform school, the initial setup would be significantly cheaper. A suitable 600-ton ship was estimated to cost $15,000 to procure and fit up. Additionally, a small, square-rigged tender for sea exercises was estimated at less than $5,000.

The estimated annual operating costs for 150 boys totaled $18,098, breaking down as follows:

• Salaries: $6,132 (Captain, First and Second Officers, five Petty Officers, two Seamen, Captain and Teacher)
• Provisions, Clothing, Fuel, and Lights: $9,750 (at $1.25 per week per boy)
• Repairs of Ship and Tender: $1,200
• Board of Officers: $416
• Incidental Expenses: $600

Adding 50 additional boys at $65 per year would bring the total to $21,348. The committee believed their officer numbers and pay estimates were "large" and "ample," and their cost of supplies was "fully sufficient."

However, actual costs significantly exceeded these initial projections. From July 1st, 1860, to the time of the report, current expenses totaled $97,654.24. The average weekly cost per boy was $3.42 (without interest) or $3.715 (with interest), far surpassing the estimated $2.32 per week. This discrepancy meant the State had spent over $25,000 more than estimated in the school's brief operation, suggesting that supporting boys on board ship was inherently more expensive than on shore. There was hope that if pupils could earn something towards their own support, costs might be reduced.

It is believed that the School Ship Massachusetts was the only one of the State institutions insured against injury by fire or water, with the cost of insurance being a "heavy" expense, the necessity of which was questioned.

Comparative financial data highlighted the differences in expenditure between the School Ship and the Westborough School:

School Name	Total Cost in Construction	Total Cost in Current Expenses	No. of Years	Yearly Average Cost
Westborough School	$198,000.00	$528,264.70	15.9	$33,224.19
School Ship	$36,580.31	$94,939.76	4.25	$22,338.76

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Shipboard life, education, and challenges

The Massachusetts was intended to accommodate 150 boys, though discussions arose about acquiring a larger vessel to serve more boys, as it was recognized that the demand for such a school exceeded its current capacity. The General Court in 1864 appropriated $20,000, along with a $5,000 donation from a Boston merchant, Mr. Barnard, to either purchase an additional vessel or exchange the Massachusetts for a larger one, aiming to accommodate 90 more boys. However, this expansion had not yet materialized, and there was no immediate prospect of increasing the number of boys received.

Life on board was structured, with boys divided into two watches, alternating daily between duty on deck and study in the schoolroom. While one watch was in school, the other engaged in practical skills essential for sailors, such as making and mending clothing, repairing shoes, mending sails, and fitting rigging. Changes were made to improve arrangements, including the replacement of berths with hammocks, which also provided additional employment for the boys and facilitated cleaning. Concerns about ventilation were addressed with the introduction of a wind-sail.

Each boy received 36 hours of book instruction every fortnight, or an average of two and a half hours daily, over five days a fortnight. The school offered classes in Arithmetic, Geography, and Navigation, alongside Reading, Spelling, and Writing. While the teacher was noted for spirit and ability, the general nature of the instruction, combined with the short average time boys spent on board (nine months and twenty days, or approximately 525 schoolroom hours), meant that the school could primarily offer a "taste" of these studies. Many newcomers often had neglected educational backgrounds, further limiting progress.

The Trustees believed that extended confinement on board made boys "fretful and discontented," not better sailors. They suggested that if mechanical employment were introduced, a longer stay of a year might be feasible, provided there was sufficient space.

Distinguished visitors and public engagement

Starting in 1862, judge Thomas Russell was accustomed to taking trips to the George M. Bernard in Boston Harbor on Sundays to address the boys. ^{[note 11]} He would frequently invite gentlemen and ladies to accompany him. Among the distinguished guests were: Charles Dickens, Goldwin Smith, David Farragut, Oliver Howard, John Andrew, Joseph Hawley, William Claflin, Marshall Jewel, and Lucius Fairchild, Matthew Simpson Frederic Huntington, Edward Taylor and George Haskins, ^{[note 12]} Charles Sumner, Mrs. Julia Ward Howe and Anna Dickinson. Thomas Russell also served as host when on June 23, 1867 President Andrew Johnson made a visit to the school ship in Boston Harbor. ^{[54] [55]}

Age of pupils and discipline

The law regarding the age of admission to the Nautical Branch underwent several changes. Initially, any boy under sixteen could be sent. This led to a significant number of very young boys, with 13 boys aged twelve and under in 1861, and 37 in 1862. In 1863, the law was modified to forbid sending boys under fourteen and set an upper limit of eighteen years. This change increased the average age of boys admitted from 13.7 in 1862 to 14.5 in 1863. However, the law was again modified, allowing boys as young as twelve to be sent, though the average age remained higher at 14.76 years.

Despite this, the Trustees and officers deemed it inexpedient to admit boys under fourteen, citing reasons outlined in annual reports. There were also doubts about admitting boys over sixteen, particularly if the total number increased, due to concerns about older boys combining to overpower officers (an attempt that had previously occurred) and the potential negative influence they might have on younger lads.

Discipline on board was generally strict, with orders given by the second and third mates, and occasionally the captain or first mate. While the work was not considered overly hard, and there was no evidence of undue severity, boys were taught all appropriate seafaring duties for their age. Their proficiency in rowing was demonstrated by a crew making a notable twenty-mile pull on August 12th. The Massachusetts also served as a Coast Guard vessel for a period in 1861 and annually made trips to various parts of the state for navigation practice.

Outcomes and impact

High expectations were placed on the School Ship to benefit both the Boston merchant marine and the boys themselves. While precise records of the boys' lives after discharge were often incomplete, there was strong belief in the institution's "great public utility," extending beyond individual reformation. The Nautical Branch significantly contributed boys to both the merchant and naval services, with general testimony indicating positive outcomes for these individuals.

As of October 1, 1864, 663 boys had been discharged from the institution:

• Entered merchant service: 194
• Entered naval service: 155
• Enlisted in the army: 23
• Sent to learn trades, or dismissed on probation: 184
• Transferred to Westborough: 85
• Escaped: 18
• Died: 4

More detailed information, provided by Captain Matthews and Mr. Eldridge (the Superintendent and Teacher), was available for 648 boys discharged before September 1st, 1864. Of the 644 who were living at the time of discharge, 240 had been heard from, in addition to nine who were sent back to the ship. Of these 249, only three were known to be leading "bad lives," and seven had died. However, the limited information on many prevented a definitive judgment on the lives of the remaining 239. Nine boys had been recommitted, indicating a continued need for discipline.

Of the 343 boys who had gone to sea (a little more than half of the total discharged), 114 had been heard from. Among these:

• Eleven (about one in ten) had left the sea.
• Twenty-six had completed two or more voyages.
• Six had become officers.
• Ninety-eight were entitled to prize money.
• Five had distinguished themselves in times of danger or battle.
• One hundred twelve were "well reported."

Regarding the 188 boys who entered the merchant service, 157 sailed in Boston vessels, 30 in other American vessels, and one in an English vessel. Their average age when shipped was sixteen years, and their average monthly wages were $10.

While these statistics were considered "very satisfactory," it was noted that only 37% of all discharged boys had been heard from, and only about 33% of those who went to sea. This highlighted a consistent failure to adequately track the boys' post-discharge lives, though increased diligence in this regard was observed from officers recently.

A surprising finding was that nearly half of the discharged boys (301 out of 644 living) did not go to sea at all. While a third of these were transferred to Westborough, the majority were either sent to learn trades on land or discharged to return to the care of their families. While this might seem counterintuitive for a "Nautical Branch," the institution's objective was still met if these boys were discharged on probation and avoided further need for restraint.

However, as a school of reform or general education, the School Ship's impact was acknowledged as limited. While offering adventurous careers and removing boys from negative influences helped deter vice, its influence on their moral development and academic knowledge was less pronounced, being "inferior both to Westborough and Lancaster" in these respects. The question of whether more could be done for the pupils in these areas remained a point of consideration. ^[56]

In 1867, the legislature severed ties between the nautical branch and the state reform school and the school ships became independent institutions and were titled the Massachusetts Nautical School.

In the 12 years the nautical branch was run, there were 2062 committed and 140 more transferred from the state reform school. The average age of the boys committed was 13.5 and the average time spent on the ship was between 10 and 18 months. Over this period, the average cost per student was twice the average cost per student at the state reform school. Besides their general educational studies and work on the ship, it was very difficult to find suitable work and there was little opportunity to do anything else. It was found that classification of the boys was impossible and, therefore, vicious and comparatively good boys were crowded together. The system as a whole wasn't suitable for the reformation of the boys.

The Massachusetts Nautical School: a short-lived experiment in juvenile reform

The Massachusetts Nautical School was established with the optimistic goal of cultivating a skilled class of sailors, particularly from among juvenile offenders. While it showed some promise during wartime, when there was both an "outlet and an incentive" for boys to join the maritime service, its long-term efficacy and wisdom were seriously questioned. ^[57]

Challenges and criticisms

At the time of this critical report, the school ship housed 144 boys, maintained at an expense to the State nearly twice that incurred for boys at the Westborough State Reform School. Several fundamental issues plagued the Nautical School:

• Lack of Classification: A thorough classification of boys was impossible on board the ship, leading to the "very vicious and comparatively good" being "necessarily crowded together." This environment was not conducive to individual reform.
• Limited Opportunities: Boys could not be kept at study all the time, and there was "little opportunity to do anything else." Providing suitable work was "extremely difficult."
• Ineffectiveness in Reformation: The system was deemed less effective for reformation compared to the Westborough system.
• Lack of Demand for Sailors: Few boys were willing to go to sea, and the advent of steam navigation had significantly reduced the demand for sailing vessels.
• Poor Placement Outcomes: During the past year, only 29 boys were shipped, with 11 placed in the revenue service, most of whom "promptly deserted." This highlighted the inefficiency of training boys for a calling they would not pursue.

Given these challenges, the report strongly recommended the early closure of the school and the sale of the school ship, deeming it "manifestly unwise to expend considerable sums in fitting boys for a calling which they are not to pursue."

Public debate and closure

The expediency of continuing the Nautical School was a subject of a hearing before the Committee on Public Charitable Institutions.

• Supporters' Views: Some trustees, notably Judge Russell, who had diligently worked for the school's welfare, believed it had been a "highly useful agency." However, even they conceded that the time had come for "other instrumentalities" to serve as well, or better. They admitted that the school's character had changed significantly due to the Visiting Agency's operation, which placed the "better class of boys" into families. Their places on the ship were then filled by "older and more confirmed in vice." This "placing out" system also reduced the school's numbers, making it feasible to accommodate a large portion of the remaining inmates at the State Reform School at Westborough.
• Opponents' Views (Reluctant): Other trustees, while not actively opposing the closure, expressed regret, believing the Nautical School's methods were uniquely suited to a certain class of boys and that it also provided recruits for the mercantile marine.
• Secretary of the Board's Suggestion: The Secretary of the Board, while favoring the proposed abolition, suggested that a new reformatory be established contemporaneously for older boys, which could also house young men currently committed to county prisons. Rainsford Island, if still state-owned, was proposed as a potential site. The Secretary also voiced concerns that transferring boys from the school ship to the Westborough school would "embarrass the latter" and necessitate "greater surveillance in its administration." These fears, the report noted, "proved to be not without foundation."

Despite some reservations, the committee, after considering all aspects, concluded that the experiment of closing the Nautical School and transferring its inmates was "worth the trial." They subsequently reported a bill for the school's abolition, which passed both branches of the legislature without opposition, leading to the eventual closure and sale of the school ship.

The legislature in 1870 ordered the discontinuance of one school ship and in 1872 ordered that the nautical school be discontinued entirely. ^{[58] [59] [60] [61]}

The State of New York followed Massachusetts in 1869 with a similar experiment, with the purchase of the school ship Mercury. ^{[note 13]}

Crisis, scrutiny, and transformation (1873–1884)

As a result, of the abolishment of the Nautical Branch, it was necessary to find a place to house not only those older boys that had been previously on the school ships but also future commitments of boys of that class.

Superintendent:

• Allen G. Shepard (1873–78)
• Luther H. Sheldon (1879–80)
• Edmond T. Dooley (1880–81)
• Joseph A. Allen (1881–85) ^[19]

Legislative shifts and age adjustments

Despite the recommendations of the board of trustees and the superintendent, in 1870, the legislature once again changed the minimum age of commitment at the reform school from 14 to 17 allowing for the older class of boys to be committed there. Also that year, the legislature pass provisions allowing the visiting agent to work with the courts to identify suitable boys to indenture directly from the courts without being committed to the reform school first. This would lessen the amount of younger boys committed to the reform school while making additional room for the older incorrigible boys. As a consequence of these two legislative acts there were not enough young qualified boys committed, to fill the trust houses and the quantity of older incorrigible boys increased.

The evolving inmate population

Work for the older boys changed as well. They could not be trusted to work on the farm, without escaping, so their only means of labor was in the workshop seating chairs. The trustees thought these boys should be taught some industrial trades, but the legislature failed to appropriate money to build additional workshops, buy the machinery and hire overseers necessary to implement it. What occurred, because of these changes, was a total change in the character of the institution. It went from a place of reformation for young offenders to a place for housing older incorrigible offenders with a building and officers who were ill-equipped to deal with it. With the abolishment of the nautical branch, the trustees and superintendent sought relief from the legislature, asking that the older boys be sent elsewhere or money appropriated to build an addition to house and segregate the incorrigible ones. The legislature responded with small Appropriations enough to make minor Improvement in the security of the existing building.

The boys organizations and activities

Throughout the 1870s, a number of organizations were established to benefit the boys with good conduct. One of these was the "Tried and True" class. In order to be a member, a boy would have to be voted in, based upon his overall good conduct over a period of time. The members would wear nickel-plated badges with the words tried-and-true and had privileges such as visiting neighboring villages unattended. During this time, the "Band of Hope" was formed complete with uniforms and instruments in which the boys would play at the school and in parades in the area villages. Two Baseball clubs were organized and uniforms were provided. One of the teams called the "Lyman", visiting several places in the state and playing with other clubs. A "Fire Company" was formed and uniforms were given to the boys who were admitted. The fire company would respond to alarms of fires outside of the institution's grounds. The fire company along with their horse-drawn, hand pumper, fire engine built by Hunneman Co of Boston would test their engine with the fire department in Westborough. ^{[note 14]} A military company called "Lyman Cadets" was formed, composed of 60 boys completely furnished with uniforms, Springfield Rifles, a full set of accouterments and drilled in accordance with the Upton's tactics. They would march in local parades and were seen at local fairs throughout the state. ^{[62] [63]}

Downsizing and staffing adjustments

By 1880, there was a decrease in commitments by the courts, and an effort was made by the board of trustees for the boys' prompt release once they reach the Honor System. This began to decrease the number of boys house at the institution, and as a result sections of the institution were closed. The salaries of those employed were reduced and duties were consolidated in order to reduce the number of staff employed. By 1882, all boys and officers were removed from the new addition, built 5 years prior, and placed in the old building. In 1883, various committees visited the Institution to determine the best way to move forward with the reform school and to use the unoccupied buildings.

c. 1877 Lawn and Flower Garden

Improvements and facilities

During this period a new coal shed located at the "State Farm Station" 100 feet long and 24 feet wide, allowing for the storage of coal from the railroad. ^{[note 15]} This allowed coal to be stored and hauled 3/4 mile in Northborough rather than being 2.5 miles from Westborough. ^[65] In 1878, the first telegraph wire was erected from the institution to the office of Samuel M Griggs near the railroad depot in the center of Westborough. ^{[66] [note 16]}

Riot and judicial inquiry 1877

The 1877 riot

On January 12, 1877 in the reformatory department, after eating supper and while still in the dining room, one of the inmates threw a bowl at a teacher and hit him in the head, creating an ugly cut that bled profusely. Other boys joined in and before it was over, 97 bowls were thrown at officers. The boys all rushed into the yard, where they were soon collected, and the officers took them to the schoolrooms. The boys who had plotted the riot grabbed ice skates and attacked the officers in schoolrooms. At the same time, other boys turned off the gas lights, and in the darkness the officers escaped out the door. The boys then barricaded the doors and proceeded to use settees as battering rams on the barred windows. They destroyed all the desks and other furniture in the classrooms and were able to gain access to the roof. The superintendent summoned Edwin B. Harvey, a trustee from Westborough, and informed him of the riot and asked that he immediately ride over. The superintendent and the officers gathered a fire hose and sprayed water through any windows that the boys were throwing furniture out of. They also subdued the boys that had made their way to the roof in hopes of escape by spraying water on them as well. When Mr. Harvey arrived at the institution the riot was still in progress and the superintendent asked him to go to the Village of Westborough and gather men to help put down the uprising. After an hour, the trustee came back with 12 able men and they organized and dragged two fire hoses up the stairs and gained access to the schoolrooms. Once in the schoolroom they were able to subdue all the boys by spraying them with water. ^{[67] [68]}

It was determined over the course of several days that 15 inmates were the main leaders of the riot. The following week these 15 inmates were transferred to Superior Court in Worcester to stand trial. Thirteen of these boys were convicted and sentenced to various terms in the House of Correction.

Legislative inquiry and reform

Soon after the riot, several articles appeared in area newspapers, fueled by the disgruntled officer and inmates, detailing the riot and alleged abuses against the boys at the reform school. ^[69] In March of that year, a committee was formed in the legislature to look into allegations of mismanagement and abusive at the reform school. The committee called as witnesses trustees, superintendents, and inmates of the institution. The committee focused on the allegations of abuse through the use of various forms of corporal punishment.

Whipping upon the bare back of the boys by the officers with leather straps made in the shoe shop was a frequently used measure. Boys were held in the basement of the chapel in cells, where they were kept for days or even weeks with only rations of bread and water to eat and a cot to sleep on. There were two other forms of restraint that were called the straitjacket and the sweatbox. The straitjacket was made of leather with an attached gag to be put in the boy's mouth and the boy would be laid down until it was time to go to bed. If he did not submit, the treatment would be continued the next day. The sweatbox was a wooden box made in the woodworking shop that stood about six and a half feet tall and was just wide enough for a person to stand upright without being able to move. They would put an inmate in the box, standing up with their arms by their side with slits in the box in front of their faces to allow air to enter for breathing. They would stand in there unable to move until the end of the day. Spraying cold water from the fire hose on a boy was used as a way subdue him and hopefully modify his behavior. ^[70]

The results of the investigation by this committee were submitted to the legislature in a 900-page report on May 7. Based on this report, the legislature authorized the governor to appoint a new board of trustees, and they enacted laws regulating the use of corporal punishment in the reform school.

State Reform School 1877–84

Continued expansion amidst challenges: 1877 enlargement

In 1875 the legislature passed an appropriation of $90,000 for an addition to the school as a Correctional Department. The addition was built mainly upon the foundations of the part burned in 1859, though the arrangement of the rooms differs greatly.

Plans and estimates were presented by Messrs. Cutting and Holman of Worcester; and these plans, after careful study by the Trustees, were submitted to a committee of the council, and, meeting with their approval, the work was started in August of 1875.

The work was done by divided contract, proposals requested for the different parts, the brick-work, the lumber, the stone and the iron. A large number of the inmates were selected for this outside work. Some for excavating the foundations, some for assisting the masons, others to help in the moving of the Garden House built some 17 years earlier. The removal of the Garden House was necessary because it stood upon ground to be occupied by the enlargement, and could not readily be made a part of it.

When completed, the addition would have two large schoolrooms, sleeping halls and a dining room for about 200 boys. It would also have workshops, cells for solitary confinement, a hospital and room for the officers. Once the new addition was completed and occupied in April 1877 a series of mechanical trades were introduced including sleigh making, blacksmithing, painting, and woodworking, including making handcarts, wheelbarrows and hand sleds. With this new addition, the older incorrigible boys were able to be completely segregated from the other boys. They had separate school-rooms, separate dining-rooms, sleeping rooms, and workshops, and their playground was separated from the reformatory department boys by a building two stories high and thirty-eight feet wide. They will only see the reformatory department boys on the Sabbath in the chapel, when the reformatory department boys occupy the gallery, the correctional department boys the floor.

With this new addition the trustees created the reformatory branch (old building), correctional branch (new addition), trust branch (3 trust houses) and hospital branch (both hospitals).

In 1879 the trustees thought it wise to renamed the correctional department to the Industrial department. The term "Industrial department" would be used throughout the state institutions.

State Workhouse at Bridgewater 1871

Temporary relocation: Bridgewater Workhouse (1883–1885)

Originally the buildings at Bridgewater were occupied as a State Almshouse from (1854–1872); but the need of classifying the State poor led to the establishment of a State Workhouse in 1866–1887.

Temporary inter-institutional relocation and management

At 8 o'clock, Saturday night, July 7, 1883 the superintendent of the reform school was notified by a telegram that the Bridgewater Workhouse was burned down, and you must meet seventy-five of their inmates at the reform school train station and provide for them. At 9.30 they were in the state reform school chapel, the officers who brought them leaving immediately. Leaving Bridgewater on Saturday, after the fire, the men were in bad condition, some without hats or shoes, and many in their shirtsleeves. Full suits of clothes were provided for them on Monday, and before the end of the week they were comfortably situated and at work in a chair-shop fitted up for them. The superintendent had supervision of these men for week days. It was two weeks before the Bridgewater superintendent, his assistant and officers came to the reform school and assumed responsibility. The new wing of the Reform School building proved to be a very convenient temporary location for the State Workhouse. This arrangement would continue until the spring of 1885 when the prisoners where sent back to Bridgewater . ^[71] The behavior of the men was excellent. A twelve feet high fence was erected across their yard, which effectively separated the two institutions.

For a few weeks, the boys in the reformatory department were very excited by the presence of the men, and caused the school a considerable amount of trouble, mostly because they could see their new neighbors chewing tobacco and smoking. The conduct of the Bridgewater boys was as good as you might expected of such a class. ^[72]

These institutions became dumping grounds for a very diverse group, including the elderly poor, the mentally ill, people with disabilities (both mental and physical), children, and those suffering from chronic illnesses. This catch-all approach made specialized care impossible and often led to the exploitation or further decline of vulnerable individuals. These issues were gradually but not altogether eliminated by transferring many residents to specialized state institutions that could better care for their needs, a process that had begun in the middle of the 19th century.

Recommendations for facilities and reform practices

Due to a convergence of declining admissions, escalating annual costs, and an unsuitable facility, the legislature is currently reviewing recommendations from various authorities including the Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity.

Proposed conversion of State Reform School into a criminal insane asylum (1882)

In accordance with the Resolve, chapter 33 of 1881, the board last presented plans for a separation of the criminal  insane of Massachusetts from the other patients in our hospitals and asylums; among which were the following:

Occupation of the Westborough Buildings. This complete separation from other establishments is difficult to maintain in Massachusetts on account of the small number of our criminal insane. The nearest approach to it, which the year 1882 seemed likely to put in the power of the State, was to take the main buildings of the State Reform School at Westborough and adapt the eastern part, which was built for prison purposes, to the uses of a criminal asylum. This can still be done at a smaller expense than the building of a structure large enough for even a hundred such patients would require. The plan would be to tear out the present block of cells in this part of the Westborough buildings and construct single dormitories on the side next the yard, leaving the east side open for a ward or corridor. The other three sides of the eastern yard can be treated in the same manner, and such other portions of the buildings as may be necessary can be taken for dormitories, day-rooms, workshops, and the other uses of such an asylum. The space is ample, and we last year procured estimates of the capacity and cost of such alterations, amounting to about $30,000 for the internal changes, which would provide room for 100 patients in single and double dormitories, with proper rooms for attendants, officers, etc. These wards and dormitories could be occupied by any class of the insane; but, if the dangerous and criminal insane should be placed there, it would further be needful to build external walls, enclosing areas for gardens, etc. There is now an enclosure outside the Westborough buildings which could be used and extended as might be found necessary in order to give the patients of the proposed asylum space for doing garden work, while the extensive farm would furnish employment for such other patients as would not need the restraint of an enclosure. Such portions of the main building as would not be needed for the asylum patients could be occupied, at least temporarily, by epileptic patients of the more troublesome kind, transferred from the present State hospitals, where they now interfere very seriously with the treatment of the ordinary insane. In this way perhaps 250 patients could be accommodated at a construction cost of $75,000. ^[73]

Proposed Conversion of State Reform School into a Homeopathic insane hospital (1883)

The movement for a state homoeopathic hospital for the insane originated within the homoeopathic medical societies. Dr. Samuel Worcester of Salem, who had served as an assistant physician at Butler Hospital in Providence from 1867 to 1869, is credited with being the first to publicly propose the acquisition of such a state institution during a meeting. While the entire homoeopathic profession supported this endeavor, the leading figure in this, as in many other successful homoeopathic initiatives, was Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot of Boston. Initial efforts by Dr. Talbot and his associates to secure legislative approval for a new location and construct new buildings proved unsuccessful. However, a potential opportunity arose from an unexpected quarter. Attention soon turned to the State Reform School at Westborough leading to discussions about its potential conversion or transfer.

In his 1883 report to the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity, Mr. F. B. Sanborn, then Inspector of Charities, made a crucial recommendation: "The State should make provision at Westborough or elsewhere for the reception and treatment of at least 300 of the chronic insane who now crowd our hospitals."

Dr. Talbot and his colleagues in the State Society immediately recognized the strategic value of Sanborn's recommendation and its influential source. They swiftly petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature (General Court) for a grant of the Westborough property for their use. Crucially, they agreed to accept the "old and unsuitable institution" and committed to the formidable task of transforming its buildings from a "prison into a hospital."

Mr. Sanborn continued to advocate for the use of the Westborough facility as an asylum, particularly for the chronic insane. The homoeopathic community, however, opposed the limitation of patients solely to those deemed incurable. They sought equality with other state institutions and petitioned for a comprehensive hospital where patients from any part of the state, suffering from any form of mental disorder, could receive their preferred medical treatment. ^[74]

Proposed relocation of the State Reform School to Lancaster (1884)

Industrial School for Girls at Lancaster 1871

A popular suggestion was to relocate the younger boys from the reform school in Westborough, to the State-owned farm and buildings of the Industrial School for Girls in Lancaster built in 1859 which does not fill the buildings. By transferring the girls in Lancaster to Monson or elsewhere, the Lancaster buildings could at once be occupied by the younger boys now at Westborough, who could be employed, as soon as spring opens, in cultivating the farm there. The number of such boys would be less than one hundred, and they could be lodged in the four family houses now standing at Lancaster. For one family of these boys the present workshop at Lancaster could be used; and two other detached workshops in convenient localities could be fitted up, in buildings now standing, for a small sum. The Lancaster buildings already contain school-rooms, dining rooms, a chapel, etc., large enough for the boys who should be sent there. If it should be found necessary hereafter to extend the Lancaster buildings so as to receive more than one hundred boys of the age suitable for a reform school, there is enough land for any reasonable extension, and for the farm and garden work of the pupils, even should their number reach two hundred. The plan aimed to reduce expenses, optimize existing state properties, and improve the segregation of younger and older inmates within the state's reformatory system. ^[75]

Proposed Relocation of State Reform School (1885)

The governor and trustees thought it would be economical to rebuild on remaining land, or to purchase other land adjoining the state reform school. ^[76]

Relocation and the Establishment of the Lyman School (1884)

Lyman School for Boys as seen in 1888.

On June 3, 1884, through Chapter 322 of the Acts, the Massachusetts Legislature formally established a state hospital for the care and treatment of the insane in Westborough. This new institution was unique in its mandate to operate upon the principles of homeopathic medicine. The act specifically directed that the existing buildings of the State Reform School, which had occupied the site for decades, should be remodeled and repurposed to accommodate 325 patients for the new hospital.

The board of trustees for this new hospital was appointed during the summer of 1884, holding their inaugural meeting on August 5th. However, it was not until September 9th that all members were officially appointed and confirmed, allowing them to fully commence their duties.

Amidst the plans for the new hospital, a significant change occurred for the reform school itself. On September 31, 1884, the State Reform School was officially renamed the Lyman School for Boys. ^[77] This renaming was a symbolic shift, perhaps anticipating its eventual relocation and a renewed focus on its mission.

As the new hospital's trustees moved forward with their mandate, pressure mounted for the Lyman School to vacate its premises. Conferences and communications between the Hospital Trustees and the School Trustees took place on February 3rd, 10th, and 24th, and March 3rd, 1885. The Hospital Trustees emphasized the critical need for complete possession of the main building at Westborough before the first of April 1885 to properly fulfill their duties to the Commonwealth. ^[78]

Main Building opened 1886

This urgency spurred the School Trustees into action to find suitable alternative accommodations for the boys. On March 20, 1885, the School Trustees were authorized to "lease and prepare the land and buildings known as Willow Park" to house boys who could no longer be accommodated in the Westborough buildings. Soon after, on April 9, 1885, the Trustees were authorized to purchase the Bela J. Stone farm adjacent to Willow Park . This acquisition was intended to provide more permanent housing solutions, with a larger building planned for 30 to 40 boys (and the Superintendent's residence), and a smaller building for another family of 30 boys on 93 acres of land. These new structures were anticipated to be completed around April 1, 1886

The main building of the Lyman School, formally State Reform School, was formally vacated in April 1885. ^[79] This marked a significant milestone in the transfer of the property to the new hospital. Evidence of this swift transition includes the sale of school desks, which had been appraised at $5.00 each in September 1881, for a mere 25 cents each at a public auction in April 1885, with several dealers present.

With the main building cleared, reconstruction efforts for the new Westborough State Hospital commenced on May 18, 1885. Despite the main building being vacated, some boys remained on the Westborough grounds. By September 30, 1885, there were 94 boys still in trust houses. The Lyman School fully vacated the boiler house in October 1885. The farm land was officially turned over to the Trustees of the hospital in November 1885. The "Peter's trust house," along with Mr. and Mrs. Howard, relocated to the Willow House in November 1885, further consolidating the Lyman School's move.

The Lyman School for Boys: a new era in Westborough (1886)

By late 1886, the Lyman School for Boys had largely completed its relocation to a new site in Westborough, Massachusetts. This move marked a significant shift in the institution's operations and capacity, as its former buildings were simultaneously converted into the Westborough Insane Hospital. ^[80]

The new establishment

Situated less than a mile from its previous location, the new Lyman School occupied a smaller farm, designed to accommodate a significantly reduced number of pupils. The facility could comfortably house approximately 100 boys, a stark contrast to the larger capacity of the old buildings. During the preceding year, the pupil count rarely exceeded 100, often dropping as low as 83, with an average of about 93—the smallest number ever reported for the school.

The total cost of the new establishment was considerable, with the nearly completed buildings amounting to roughly $68,000. When combined with the price of the new farm, the aggregate cost surpassed $80,000. Approximately $10,000 of this was drawn from the Lyman Fund, a legacy from the school's founder, Theodore Lyman, which held an approximate market value of $52,000 in securities at the time.

The new farm, encompassing nearly 100 acres, was valued at $13,900 without the new structures. The valuation of the farm and buildings, excluding the unfinished chapel, stood at nearly $73,000. Once completed, the chapel was expected to increase the total valuation to over $76,000. Including personal estate valued at $25,555, the total worth of the new facility's buildings, furniture, and land approached $100,000, equating to roughly $1,000 per pupil for the 100-boy capacity. The overall market value of all funds belonging to the Lyman School was approximately $55,000, with only the income from these funds typically used for the school's annual expenses.

Financials and operations

For the year ending October 1, 1886, the actual monetary outlay for the Lyman School was $28,412. After deducting over $2,000 in earnings from labor and other sources, the net cost was approximately $26,360. Further subtracting expenditures on farm buildings and improvements, the true net cost of operating the school was around $24,000 for an average of 93 boys, translating to about $5 per week per boy. This sum was considered substantial, with expectations for future reductions through decreased outlays and increased income from student labor.

Despite the initial expenditure, the new establishment was projected to reduce the absolute cost of running the school by at least $5,000 annually compared to the old farm. This made the $75,000 investment in the new facility more economically viable for the State than continuing operations at the old site, which was estimated to be worth approximately $100,000 to the newly occupying Westborough Insane Hospital.

Impact of the relocation and reforms

The move was deemed essential, as the old establishment had become a burden on the school, ill-suited for the smaller number of pupils it had supported in recent years. A change in the age of pupils, enacted two years prior, had successfully made the school more manageable. Operations were now more strictly aligned with a "family system."

While an increase in pupil numbers was anticipated, it was expected that these younger and "less depraved" boys would be more easily placed in families, ideally keeping the average number in the school buildings at or below 100 for optimal economic results. It was also considered expedient to potentially transfer some boys from Monson, ^{[note 18]} who had been court-committed, to the Lyman School. As of October 1, the number of boys at Monson (93) exceeded those at Lyman, though Lyman's numbers had since risen to 106.

During the twelve months ending October 1, the Lyman School served a total of 170 different boys, with an average of 93. Their primary occupations included farm work and other outdoor labor, though new buildings were equipped with shops for mechanical tasks. Sixty new commitments were received during the year, alongside nearly 20 boys who had returned after previous stays. Also, 60 boys were successfully placed with families or returned to their homes. The year saw very little sickness and no deaths among the pupils. ^[81]

An Overview and Synopsis of the Massachusetts State Reform School.

The Massachusetts State Reform School, while initially lauded as a model institution, experienced a tumultuous history marked by shifting policies, architectural changes, and ongoing struggles to effectively rehabilitate its diverse population of juvenile offenders. Its journey reflects the evolving understanding of penal reform and the persistent challenges of addressing juvenile delinquency.

Early years and "Gloomy Disappointment" (1848–1859)

Established in 1848, the school initially housed boys between the ages of 7 and 16, though at times its population swelled to over 600, with some inmates as old as 20. This practice of "congregating such old boys" proved disastrous. A contemporary article in the "Christian Examiner" described the results of this period as "a gloomy and painful disappointment to many of the most hopeful friends of the noble experiment," ^[82] leading to serious consideration of abandoning the school altogether by 1859. The wide age range and large numbers created an unmanageable environment, hindering effective reform.

A Brief Period of Success and Policy Shifts (1859–1872)

A pivotal moment occurred in 1859 when two-thirds of the school's buildings were destroyed by fire. This event inadvertently led to a significant policy change: the maximum age for commitment was reduced from 16 to 14. To accommodate older boys, a school-ship was established, receiving individuals from 7 to 16.

This period saw a marked improvement in the main school's reputation. Dr. E. C. Wines and Theo. W. Dwight, prominent penology experts, lauded the Massachusetts reform schools in their 1866 report to the New York legislature, stating, "If we might venture, among so many excellent institutions, to single out any that seem to us to possess an excellence superior to others, we could not hesitate to name the reform schools of Massachusetts." This praise specifically followed the age reduction in the main institution.

However, the school-ship experiment proved to be a failure, mirroring the earlier struggles of the main school with older boys. It was abandoned in 1872.

Renewed challenges and the "new part" (1872-present)

The abandonment of the school-ship in 1872 marked a return to earlier problems. The boys from the ship were transferred back to the main institution, and the maximum age was once again raised, this time from 14 to 17 years. This decision, along with the construction of a "new part" of the building, immediately led to "constant source of trouble and anxiety." The institution's superintendent lamented that "only by the greatest vigilance of all the officers" had they managed to prevent riots and other disturbances, acknowledging that "although we may not have done much good, we have kept the inmates from doing much harm."

Contributing factors to ongoing difficulties

Several factors contributed to the school's persistent challenges:

• Selective Commitment: The Massachusetts court system's practice of diverting "promising" boys to homes or probation meant that the reform school received "only the worst of the criminal class of boys." This concentration of highly challenging individuals made rehabilitation efforts significantly more difficult.
• Socioeconomic Extremes: Massachusetts' diverse population, with its "greatest extremes of culture," presented a unique challenge. Boys from "superior parentage," who might respond to appeals to reason and conscience, were housed alongside those from "miserable abodes," who often inherited "scarcely more than the animal instincts" and responded primarily to immediate fear or pleasure. This disparity made it nearly impossible for any superintendent to apply a single, effective disciplinary approach.

Organizational structure and future hopes

Despite its difficulties, the school's organizational plan was considered "superior to any in the country." It featured a main building for "restless and unreliable boys," housing essential services like the laundry, workshops, and bakery. Importantly, "family houses" were situated outside the main building, accommodating 25 to 30 "better class" boys. Each family house was run by a couple and a female teacher, fostering a more intimate, familial environment, with limited interaction between the different groups of boys.

It was hoped that a recent reduction in the maximum age would enable the school to regain its former positive reputation and become an "honor to the State, instead of a disgrace." There was a strong belief that if the "new part" had not been built and the maximum age kept lower, the school would have maintained its good name. Many believed it would have been more beneficial and cost-effective for the State to have removed the "new part" and reverted to the original, more successful configuration.

As the school's buildings and beautiful location are expected to pass into other hands, there is a hope that the State will provide equivalent resources to establish a new institution that honors the benevolent founder of the original school. ^[83]

Reconstruction of the Westborough State Hospital: From Prison to Progressive Asylum (1885–1886)

1890 Westborough Insane Hospital

The transformation of the former Westborough State Reform School into the new Westborough State Hospital for the Insane in the mid-1880s was an ambitious undertaking. Unlike the construction of a new facility, this project involved the intricate and challenging conversion of an existing building, originally designed as a prison, into a modern hospital environment. This extensive reconstruction, which began in earnest in 1885, aimed to create a therapeutic and functional space while adhering to principles of economy and safety. ^{[84] [85]}

Trustees:

• Charles R. Codman
• Henry S. Russel
• Lucius G. Pratt
• Francis A. Dewson
• Archibald H. Grimke
• Phcebe J. Leonard
• Emily Talbot, ^{[note 19]}

The challenge of conversion

The core challenge lay in converting a structure built for confinement into one suitable for healing and care. The original design, intended for "guarded criminals," had to be fundamentally re-imagined to "shelter the sick." This task proved far more complex than building a new asylum from scratch.

Work on the reconstruction commenced in May 1885, employing between sixty and one hundred and twenty men throughout the summer and fall. Even when cold weather halted external work, interior progress continued, thanks to the buildings being kept warm. By the summer of 1886, a large contingent of artisans brought the plans "nearly to completion."

Addressing hidden defects and structural issues

Despite meticulously drawn plans, numerous unforeseen defects emerged during the reconstruction, necessitating changes and additional outlays of money not originally contemplated. The buildings, having been in the final years of the reform school's occupancy, had not received the maintenance expected of a permanent institution. Key issues uncovered included:

• Structural Weaknesses: A long wall in the eastern wing, seemingly robust, proved unable to stand independently once supporting cell walls were removed. This required its complete demolition from attic to ground and the construction of a new wall.
• Water Damage: Leaky roofs, disrepair gutters, and faulty conductors were prevalent.
• Unsuitable Utilities: The drainage system was inadequate, and nearly all existing plumbing and gas pipes had to be removed and replaced.
• Floor Renovation: Floors throughout the building required renewal and leveling. Many basement areas needed concrete floors.
• Accessibility and Ventilation: Communication pathways in the basement had to be established, sometimes requiring excavation where the first floor was only two feet above ground.
• Sanitation: The old laundry in the basement, lacking a concrete floor, had years of accumulated wash water saturating the earth, causing foul odors. This necessitated excavating the contaminated earth, replacing it with fresh soil, and laying a new concrete floor.
• Lighting: Many windows were enlarged, and new ones were cut to provide ample light to rooms and halls.

Design principles and architectural changes

While aiming for economy, the reconstruction incorporated several key design principles to improve patient care, safety, and operational efficiency:

• Minimal Exterior Alterations: To minimize expense, only three sections of the outside walls and roofs were significantly altered. In these areas, approximately forty-foot sections of the building were removed. One such alteration cleared away the old kitchen, while the other two enhanced light and air circulation in what had been enclosed courts.
• Dedicated Wards and Spaces: Short halls were added to the north end of the two wings to accommodate noisy patients. Offices and officers' rooms from the former school were retained.
• Centralized Dining and Chapel:
  • The former chapel was converted into a large, easily accessible "Congregate Dining-Room," designed to seat 250 patients.
  • To connect this dining room to the wings, two one-story wooden corridors were built, one for men (east) and one for women (west). An octagonal, glass-roofed space in the center of these corridors offered patients a place for exercise and sunlight during winter.
  • A similar corridor along the front wall outside the dining room was built to prevent constant traffic through the main dining area.
  • A new kitchen was strategically placed immediately behind the large dining room on the same floor, ensuring hot food service and preventing odors from entering the dining area through a five-foot serving shelf.
• Ward Dining: For private patients disinclined to use the main dining room and for noisy or violent patients, six smaller dining rooms were prepared within the wards, each accommodating about 25 persons. A seventh dining room was designated for staff. Food would be transported to these ward dining rooms via cars filled in the kitchen and lowered by elevator to basement tracks.
• New Chapel: A new chapel was constructed directly above the large dining room, accessible from all parts of the building without going outdoors. The original one-story school chapel's roof was removed, the chapel floor was lowered, and a high French roof was built, effectively forming the new chapel. Large dormer windows maximized natural light.

Safety and modern features

Patient and staff safety, as well as the prevention of fire, were paramount in the new design:

• Fireproofing: Stairways were constructed with iron stairs set into brick walls, making them fireproof. Special fire escapes were built at the ends of halls, enclosed within brick walls from ground to garret. Additionally, forty-foot sections in each wing were constructed entirely of brick and iron to act as fire breaks.
• "Mill Construction" Floors: In areas that previously had high, single-story rooms, a second floor was added using "mill construction." This technique involved covering the floor beams with lath and plaster, creating an air space that enhanced sound deadening and fire retardation.
• Advanced Flooring: Floors were made of two- or three-inch hemlock plank, topped with mortar and rift-sawn Georgia pine strips. Three coats of "Elastica" (a varnish-like wood preservative) were applied, and the mortar layer served to deaden sound and further retard fire.
• Fire-Resistant Walls: Inner walls were mostly constructed from two-inch tongued hemlock planks covered with lath and plaster. This method provided additional air space, comparable strength to brick at lower cost, and excellent fire retardation. Spaces behind baseboards were filled with mortar to prevent vermin passage and to eliminate potential fire flues.
• Enhanced Ward Design: A significant departure from conventional long hallways, the wards incorporated bay windows and day-rooms at right angles to the main hall, creating a more "homelike" and less institutional atmosphere without hindering attendant observation. Every ward also featured south-facing day-rooms for maximum sunlight exposure.
• Cleanliness and Aesthetics: All interior woodwork was white wood, shellacked and varnished for a bright and clean appearance. Chair-rails protected walls, and all corners of brick chimneys and plastering were rounded off to prevent damage.
• Ventilation and Security: Ventilated mop and pail closets were integrated into nearly all halls to prevent air contamination. "Safety pattern" screws (with two holes requiring a special bit) were used in woodwork and registers to prevent removal by patients. Window sash-cords were concealed to prevent improper use by suicidal patients.
• Locks and Doors: "Dead locks" manufactured by William Hall & Son of Boston were installed, with bronze knobs only on the hall side of doors. First-floor room doors opened inward, while second-floor doors (for excitable patients) opened into the halls to prevent barricading. All room doors were fitted with four-by-six-inch wickets, allowing night-watch inspection without disturbing sleeping patients—a crucial detail for patient recovery.
• Ward Dining Room Efficiency: Each ward dining room featured a consistent layout with a sliding dumb-waiter door, a dish shelf, a sink, a drip-tray, a closet sideboard for crockery, and a radiator for heating both the room and dishes.

Compactness and economy

The overall design of the Westborough State Hospital emphasized compactness. Unlike institutions with long, sprawling wings (Kirkbride Plan), the layout ensured short corridors to wards, minimizing travel distances for staff, food cars, and utility lines (gas, water, steam). This compact design contributed to economic administration. A patient could reach the congregate dining room from the furthest second-floor ward in only 235 feet.

The architects aimed to achieve "all the necessities of asylum construction, without the expense and defects of the palatial style." While the presence of patients' voices might occasionally be audible in other parts of the hospital due to the compact nature, this was considered a minor trade-off for the gains in efficiency and reduced costs. The design reflected a philosophy that justified a structure capable of being self-supporting from pauper patient income, aligning with the principle that a state institution, like an individual, should "live within one's means."

The extensive reconstruction of the Westborough State Hospital transformed a former prison into a modern, functionally designed asylum, reflecting the evolving understanding of patient care, institutional efficiency, and the integration of homeopathic principles in the late 19th century.

Original boiler house

The Boiler House of the hospital was a critical component of its operations, undergoing significant relocation and modernization to improve efficiency, safety, and overall patient well-being.

Initially, the hospital's steam and heating needs were met by an old, dilapidated wooden building as part of the reform school. This structure was in poor condition, suffering from a leaking roof, sagging and worn floors, and misaligned timbers. It housed three functional boilers and two nearly defunct pumps. The brick chimney, approximately 75 feet high, was inadequate for the boilers' capacity and suffered from poor draft due to its low-lying location.

A major inefficiency stemmed from the distance and configuration of the steam and water pipes. These pipes traveled approximately 400 feet uphill through a trench to the southwest corner of the main building. Surface water infiltration into the trench saturated the pipe coverings, leading to a significant heat loss of 1% to 35% through condensation. Furthermore, the distance to the kitchen for steam cooking was about 660 feet, and to the most remote parts of the building, 940 feet, further exacerbating heat loss and operational challenges.

Relocation and new boiler house

To address these critical issues, a more suitable location was identified: a wooden carriage-house, previously used for storage, situated 82 feet behind the center of the main building's rear portion. This well-maintained structure was repurposed as the new Boiler House.

The relocation involved transferring the three existing boilers and adding one new boiler, resulting in a configuration of two boilers with a five-foot diameter and two with a four-and-a-half-foot diameter. A new, larger brick chimney was erected to accommodate the current and future boiler capacity. Crucially, all steam pipes were designed and installed to align with this new location, eliminating additional expense for re-routing. These pipes now communicated with the new Boiler House through an 85-foot-long tunnel, six feet high and five feet wide, effectively preventing steam condensation loss and eliminating over 300 feet of problematic underground piping.

The new Boiler House significantly reduced distances for key utilities:

• Laundry: 120 feet (previously undefined, but inferred to be much longer)
• Kitchen: 285 feet (reduced from 660 feet)
• Farthest point of the building: 500 feet (reduced from 940 feet)

Enhanced facilities and infrastructure

The new location offered several strategic advantages beyond improved heat distribution. It facilitated a more convenient and cost-effective coal supply. A proposed branch track from State Farm station on the Old Colony Railroad, extending through the eastern edge of the institution's grounds to Westborough, would allow a short spur to deliver coal and supplies directly to the hospital building. The branch track never came to fruition.

The Boiler House also incorporated a new 20-horsepower engine. This engine powered the laundry machinery via shafting through the tunnel, and its placement allowed for constant supervision by the engineer. Adjacent to the engine was a workshop, providing power for lathes and other machinery.

The first floor of the Boiler House was renovated and repurposed as a bakery. The oven's flue connected to the large, 70-foot-high new chimney, which featured a four-foot diameter flue. This chimney also served an innovative ventilating purpose: a pipe from a large cesspool, approximately 30 feet away, was led into the chimney's outside brickwork (without communicating with the core flue). The heat from the chimney created a strong upward draft, thoroughly ventilating the cesspool and preventing noticeable odors on the premises.

Heating and ventilating system

The hospital implemented an indirect heating system, designed by Frederic Tudor of Boston, where air was heated in the basements and then distributed to wards and rooms, with corresponding ventilators for air removal. A significant amount of salvaged radiators and pipes from the previous direct heating system were initially intended for reuse, though it was later found that the labor required to recondition them nearly equaled the cost of new materials.

Radiators, previously used for direct heating, were suspended overhead in the basement, encased in galvanized iron boxes with an opening at the bottom for air intake. Each radiator chamber was designed to supply only one room, preventing one room from depleting heated air at the expense of another. Individual valves on each radiator allowed for steam supply regulation.

Outside air entered three basement rooms through open windows, passed over steam coils, and was heated to approximately 60°F. Fans then drew this tempered air, forcing it through the basements and over the radiators before it entered the wards at around 100°F. While primarily supplying heated air to halls, many rooms also had hot air registers. Every room, however, was equipped with a ventilator, which, by drawing air out, created a flow of warm air from the hall through wire transoms and into the room on its way to the ventilator.

Mr. Tudor's design aimed to provide 60 cubic feet of fresh air per minute for each of 350 persons, totaling 21,000 cubic feet per minute. To ensure adequate distribution and prevent "local vitiation," the system was designed to supply a total of 30,000 cubic feet per minute. This was achieved through three ventilating fans with independent engines: two six-foot diameter fans, each with a capacity of 10,000 cubic feet per minute, and one four-foot diameter fan with a 7,500 cubic feet per minute capacity, totaling 27,500 cubic feet. An additional 2,500 cubic feet per minute was supplied through inlets not connected to the fan system.

The air supply was not solely dependent on the fans; in case of temporary malfunction, air could be supplied in unlimited quantities through numerous heating chambers in the cellar, except for smaller rooms. For these smaller rooms, two detached 22-inch fans, driven by belts from the large fans and rotating at about 800 revolutions per minute (compared to 200 revolutions for the larger fans), ensured rapid air change.

Ventilating outlets were provided for all spaces with fresh air supplies, as well as for rooms, lavatories, and closets that drew air indirectly from corridors, ensuring these areas were in the path of outgoing air. The outlets were designed to exhaust the required air volume without fan assistance. Hot air registers were placed near ceilings, and ventilators just above baseboards. Heating and ventilation ducts were either tin-lined wooden boxes or brick chimney flues. Tin-lined ventilating ducts extended through galvanized iron pipes into brick chimneys (built for this purpose), preventing fire hazards in attics.

Initial testing indicated a boiler pressure of 1.75 pounds on a cold day, suggesting a favorable outlook for economical and satisfactory heating, and efficient ventilation providing ample fresh air for all patients.

Water supply

Historically, the hospital's general water supply came from a lake. Pumps in the old boiler house raised water to a boiler iron tank in the west tower, 48 feet above the first floor and 128 feet above the lake. This 15,000-gallon tank began leaking badly in November 1885, prompting a thorough investigation due to its small size and unreliability.

Options for obtaining water from Westborough and Northborough villages were explored but deemed impractical due to distance, elevation, and cost. Westborough's waterworks couldn't deliver water to the tower, and Northborough's supply would be intermittent during peak consumption and unavailable during emergencies like fires. Furthermore, taking water from either village would be significantly more expensive.

Concerns about the lake's water purity also arose due to its use by bathers, suspicious supply sources, and a six-month period in 1885 when the water was too muddy for laundry use. Chemical analysis confirmed it was unfit for drinking, primarily due to the lake's shallowness. Consequently, engineers recommended obtaining water from wells driven near the lake, where filtration through the earth would provide an abundant supply.

With funding from the Legislature for a "water supply, iron tank and connections," work on the new system commenced. Satisfactory test wells led to a contract with Calvin Horton of East Somerville to drive 30 wells, approximately 45 feet deep, using two-inch pipes. These wells would be connected and the water delivered to the pumps in the old boiler house, guaranteeing 150,000 gallons daily. The driven wells showed promising results.

A new, less conspicuous water tower was located 150 feet from the west end of the building, on high ground amidst trees. This circular brick tower, 70 feet high and 20 feet in diameter, with walls 16 inches thick in the lower half and 12 inches in the upper, was designed to house a 150,000-gallon iron tank. A solid four-foot square brick column in the center provided additional strength, matching the outer walls' height and load-bearing capacity. The iron tank, 26 feet in diameter, projected three feet beyond the brickwork.

The new system also included an updated pumping mechanism. A large new pump would be installed in the old boiler house, with the two old pumps serving as partial payment. Power for this pump would be supplied from the new boiler house, with precautions against steam condensation during transmission. An automatic system would control the pump's operation based on water height. The ironwork for the tank was expected to be completed by December.

The tank's size was calculated to meet the needs of 400 patients, allowing for 250 gallons per patient daily (totaling 100,000 gallons, with 50,000 gallons in reserve). Pumping enough water for one or two days at a time was deemed more economical than frequent, short pumping cycles.

To ensure an uninterrupted water supply, particularly in case of fire or well failure, the existing pipe in the lake would be extended into deeper water. The new water supply system was anticipated to be one of the most satisfactory improvements to the institution.

Plumbing

The plumbing contract was awarded to T. H. Duggan of Boston, who neared completion of his work. The general arrangement of the water sections was consistent across the building. Bathrooms were individual rooms with central iron bathtubs for all-around access. Washrooms featured two washbowls with marble tops, a 20x22x13-inch slop-hopper, and two water closets with seat-activated flushing mechanisms, incorporating both seat and soil-pipe ventilation. Cold water was supplied through lead pipes, and hot water through brass pipes. All pipes, including soil-pipes, were left exposed on walls and ceilings to facilitate immediate leak detection and ease of repair.

Duggan's contract also included two steam coil-heated water boilers. A 200-gallon boiler under the kitchen supplied that room and the front of the building, while a 500-gallon boiler under the laundry supplied the hospital's rear portion. These boilers were awaiting delivery but expected to be in good order when needed.

Lighting

Initially, the hospital was lit by gasoline gas produced on-site by the Springfield Gas Machine Company. With the removal of most gas pipes during repairs, an opportunity arose to re-evaluate lighting methods. Coal gas was dismissed due to the high cost of necessary infrastructure and the absence of local gas works.

Electric incandescent lighting appeared promising, with estimates from Swan, Weston, and Edison companies. While the plant cost was substantial, it seemed within reach, and production costs were comparable to gas at 60-70 cents per thousand feet. Electric light offered brilliance, steadiness, and safety, without heating or vitiating the air. However, the prohibitive annual cost of lamps—between $1,000 and $2,500 for over 700 outlets (each requiring 1-4 lamps per year at $1 per globe), in addition to production and repair costs—made its adoption impractical due to the necessity of economy.

Consequently, continuing with gasoline gas was deemed the most feasible plan. A contract with the Springfield Company for 750 lights involved adding a new machine to the old one, installing a mixer for gas quality regulation, and replacing the weight-driven blower with a water-wheel blower. Gas pipes were installed and ready for testing.

Chandeliers and fixtures, supplied by Rowland & Churchill (the lowest bidder), included 427 fixtures of various styles and sizes with 721 burners specifically made for gasoline by the Springfield Company. Notable fixtures included four 16-light reflectors for the chapel, eight 6-light Bailey pattern reflectors for the congregate dining room, 144 two-light pendants, and 103 single-light "French bronze" fixtures. Four gas-stove attachments were also included for Infirmary ward rooms, allowing nurses to prepare food for the sick at night without going to the main kitchen.

Window guards

The contract for window guards was awarded to Morss & Whyte of Boston. These guards were to be affixed to the outside of windows using safety screws. The wire used varied in size: larger for the second floor and smaller for less excitable patients on the first floor. The two cottages would have ordinary windows, even though one would house patients and potentially convalescents.

Painting

To rectify the unsightly appearance caused by varying mortar and brick shades after new window and door openings were cut and old ones filled, and to address issues with light-colored, porous brick allowing rain penetration, the walls were painted with two coats of yellow by E. Hewitson of Boston. The woodwork of doors and windows would later receive a bronze color. This painting was expected to significantly extend the building's lifespan.

Speaking tubes and telephones

To facilitate internal communication, a system of speaking tubes was installed, connecting the pharmacy to all but two wards. For these two wards and two out-buildings, telephones were deemed more effective. All this work was carried out by Reed & Page of Worcester, who also installed an electric watchman's clock by Seth W. Fuller & Holtzer in the office, with 24 stations located on each ward.

Fire apparatus

A comprehensive internal fire protection system was completed, featuring four three-inch diameter risers with two-inch hose outlets on main floors and in attics. The main supply pipe for these risers was four inches in diameter. In total, 16 lines of hose were made ready for fire emergencies. Attic hoses were strategically placed at the top of steps for easy access without needing to enter the attics directly.

The kitchen

A new, one-story kitchen building with a basement was constructed directly behind the congregate dining room. Its roof featured windows for ventilation and light, beneficial during cooking operations. The ceiling was sheathed with pine, walls were faced brick, and the floor was brick-nogged with a rock asphalt upper layer. Three refrigerators (for meat, milk, and butter) were located in the basement.

Work tables lined both sides of the room. The center housed two two-bushel steamers and four jacket-kettles. The third side was occupied by a two-foot broiler, a twelve-foot French range, and a four-foot oven for meats. Three of the large chimney's six flues served their pipes. The fourth flue was dedicated to the range hood for smoke and heat removal. The fifth ventilated two dish-towel closets in the pantries off the main dining room, and the sixth admitted a pipe from the swill-tub cover. These latter two ventilation flues, placed next to hot flues for strong drafts, ensured the room remained free of foul odors.

The fourth side of the kitchen adjoined the dining room, connected by a serving shelf. A steam table here kept food warm during meals. Two large 60-gallon urns, one for coffee and one for tea, were located beside the serving opening. Each had a faucet in the kitchen and an additional pipe passing through the wall into the serving pantry, ending in two faucets, allowing two waiters to draw simultaneously while the cook could also draw on the kitchen side for ward dining rooms.

A closet-like recess in the kitchen housed a five-foot by three-foot hydraulic elevator for transporting food cars from the basement to the kitchen, and for moving heavy or inconvenient items. A plate warmer with steam pipes was located in the serving pantry beneath the serving shelf, allowing dishes to be preheated before meals to ensure food was served hot and appetizingly, a detail considered important for patient well-being.

The Laundry

The laundry department comprised three rooms on the first floor of the rear center, beneath the ward for working male patients, ensuring machinery noise would not disturb them. The first room was for washing, the second for drying, and the third for ironing.

The wash-room contained three Cambridge Washers (Nos. 0 Ex., 1 Ex., and 2 Ex.), with capacities of 200, 100, and 50 shirts, respectively. The 0 Ex. machine was specifically for badly soiled clothing. Also present were a 26-inch centrifugal wringer (extractor) by Crawford & Poland, three sets of stationary wash-tubs with two hand-wringers, and a soap-kettle.

The drying-room featured 20 sliding racks with steam pipes underneath, divided into two compartments. The smaller four-rack division was for very foul clothing, partitioned off to prevent odor contamination of other items. This room also had a jacket-kettle for starch making.

The ironing-room extended across the rear of the building and projected 17 feet outward on the south side, creating a cross-draft regardless of wind direction. Ironing tables lined one half of the room, each equipped with a gas stove for heating irons. These heaters offered advantages: ironers didn't need to leave their work, they didn't heat the room like coal stoves, and were believed to be economical (especially with gasoline gas estimated at 73 cents per thousand feet). The ironing-room also had central tables for receiving clothes, boxes for distribution before returning wash to wards, one Tyler ironer, and a 50-inch vertical mangle by J. F. Baldwin & Co., designed with safety features to prevent operator injury. The entire laundry outfit was contracted by Frederic Tudor and was nearing completion.

Furnishing

A sum of $17,000 was granted to furnish wards for 325 patients, averaging $52.30 per patient. This amount covered beds, bedding, tables, chairs, settees, towels, table linen, dining room crockery and utensils, toilet sets, gas fixtures, and grates for ten ward fireplaces. It did not include carpets, rugs, books, or musical instruments, which would be added over time. A detailed list of needed items was prepared and sent to manufacturers for bids, streamlining the process and preventing confusion.

The wood furniture contract went to Paine Furniture Co. of Boston, including 100 wooden bedsteads (four styles), five folding beds, 76 bureaus and washstands, 11 wardrobes, 73 tables, 65 mirrors, 660 chairs, 49 rockers/easy chairs, and 79 settees. Twenty-two heavy iron bedsteads for violent patients were also included. Seventy-nine settees and 16 heavy restraint chairs were indirectly supplied by Gardner & Co. of New York. Most furniture was ash for brightness, cleanliness, and durability, with cherry pieces for variety. The hospital avoided the common practice of mass-producing a single sample, aiming for a more cheerful and homelike appearance.

The remaining 270 bedsteads were of tube iron, supplied by an out-of-state company, all with woven wire springs (also supplied for the wooden bedsteads). Competitive bidding resulted in remarkably low costs, with complete iron bedsteads and springs costing about $3.20 each—reportedly lower than any other institution had achieved.

Mattresses were of two kinds: 53 cotton felt mattresses by H. D. Ostermoor & Son of New York (costing 26 cents per pound) for "best patients," and 327 pure South American horsehair mattresses by Frank E. Hall of New York (31 cents per pound), with 22 straw mattresses.

Sheets: 1,780 sheets were ordered (four per person), with two-thirds unbleached. Made of seven-quarter Pequot sheeting, they were cut and hemmed at the Reformatory Prison for Women at Sherburne, providing inmate employment and good work at a fair price.

Blankets: Two kinds were supplied: 202 pairs of white, 10-quarters wide, pure wool blankets from George Heyman of New York ($2.75 each), and 610 pairs of gray from A. L. Haskell & Son of Boston ($1.85 per pair).

Tableware and crockery were furnished by Clark, Adams & Clark of Boston. Knives, forks, and spoons were the best plate. Most dining rooms received the best white granite dishes. The two ward dining rooms for private patients had decorated dishes of a pretty pattern. In contrast, the two dining rooms for violent and destructive patients received durable agate ware dishes from Lalance & Grosjean, designed to withstand rough usage.

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The farm (c. 1885)

In mid-November 1885, a significant transition occurred at the hospital. The school that had previously occupied the barn vacated the premises, leaving the hospital in possession of approximately 110 tons of hay and a substantial farm. This transfer, however, came without adequate funding for proper care, as the previous legislature had failed to appropriate the necessary $2,000. ^[86]

Urgent needs and Col. Russell's intervention

The farm faced numerous pressing issues. To ensure satisfactory results for the following year, the hay needed to be returned to the ground as manure. Additionally, the 600 apple trees and an equal number of grapevines required pruning, roads and fences were in disrepair, and portions of the land needed preparation for future crops.

At this critical juncture, Colonel Henry S. Russell was appointed to the farm committee. He strongly advocated for treating the State land as if it were private property. To implement this approach, he personally invested in and took responsibility for acquiring livestock, and also covered the wages of the farm workers. Within a few weeks, the barn housed 32 cows, a bull, and a team of horses.

The farm under E. A. Hersey

Active work on the farm commenced immediately under the leadership of Mr. E. A. Hersey, who was appointed as the head farmer. Hersey had previously held the same position at the school for four years, making him intimately familiar with all aspects of the farm. The wisdom of Colonel Russell's strategy, combined with Hersey's expertise, quickly became evident. The farm yielded a hay crop 15 tons larger than ever before, and the land was left in excellent condition for the upcoming year's crops.

Livestock and production

The primary objective in acquiring cows was to ensure a large supply of wholesome milk for the hospital's patients and for cooking. Most of the cows selected were Ayrshire or Holstein grades, and the bull was a young, thoroughbred Holstein. As there were no patients at the time of this account, the surplus milk, along with fruits and produce that could not be stored for winter, were sold. Looking ahead, there was a recognized need for ten additional cows, both for their milk and to utilize surplus hay, as well as an ox team.

Infrastructure needs

A significant infrastructural challenge identified was the lack of proper housing for carriages. Although they were under cover, they remained exposed to snow and rain. Furthermore, the horse stalls in the barn were at capacity, with a need for space for five more horses. Consequently, a request was made for funds to construct a new carriage house during the coming year.

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Recommendations for hospital operations and staffing

This outlines key recommendations concerning patient-to-physician ratios, the training of specialized medical professionals, improved attendant welfare, and optimal utilization of hospital facilities. These recommendations aim to enhance patient care, staff well-being, and the institution's overall contribution to the medical field.

Physician staffing and training

A critical recommendation focuses on reducing the patient-to-physician ratio. Currently, some institutions see each assistant physician caring for 150 to 250 patients, a number deemed detrimental to efficient work and the physicians' ability to pursue continued medical education. It is strongly recommended that no assistant physician be expected to have charge of more than 100 patients, and that the medical staff be increased proportionally to meet this standard.

Another significant benefit of a larger medical staff is the opportunity to train more practitioners in the specialty of insanity (psychiatry). Historically, allopathic asylums have been instrumental in producing skilled professionals in this field. There is a clear demand within the homeopathic profession for similar talent, and this hospital has the potential to become a leading institution for training experts who will bring honor to both the hospital and homeopathic practices.

Attendant welfare and retention

The welfare of hospital attendants is identified as a pressing concern. Attendants often begin their service in good health but, due to demanding schedules (spending days and nights with patients with only minimal respite), many experience significant health deterioration within six months to three years. To address this, it is recommended that attendants be relieved of all anxiety during a part of their time, preferably at night.

A practical solution involves setting aside dedicated, private accommodations for attendants. Specifically:

• The third story of "D" building, located over the private female wards, should be reserved for female attendants. This space is too small for a patient ward but ideally suited for staff lodging.
• A portion of one of the cottages should be reserved for male attendants.

The proposed plan is to have attendants perform their customary day duties. Once patients have retired for the night, one attendant would remain on duty in the ward, while the other one or two attendants would go off duty and sleep entirely separate from the patients. This approach, combined with the night-watch staff, is believed to significantly improve attendant retention, allowing the hospital to keep experienced and valuable staff for longer periods.

Optimal use of cottages

There are three cottages near the main hospital building, and specific recommendations are made for their use to expand capacity and improve patient and staff living conditions:

• Two of the cottages can each accommodate 30 patients, which, combined with 15 additional patients in the main building, would increase the hospital's total capacity from 325 to 400 patients.
• The "Garden House" is recommended for use on a "cottage plan" for male patients who work around the grounds, with the specific recommendation that no guards be placed on the windows to foster a more open environment.
• The "Farm House" is recommended for a dual purpose:
  • Part of it should be used for un-committed patients who shall not be restrained by locks or guards, offering a less restrictive environment.
  • Another portion should be set aside for male attendants when they are off duty.
• The third cottage has already been designated as lodging for male help. This cottage recently required unexpected expenses for roof shingling, cellar drainage (due to several inches of water), and concreting the cellar floor. Given its age (over a century old), it is acknowledged that this cottage may not serve for a very long time.

Superintendent's residence

An appropriation for a superintendent's house was made but work was deferred to prioritize the main building's completion. The residence was planned for occupancy the following year, likely a few rods from the office on hospital grounds. Its urgency stemmed from insufficient room in the main building to accommodate officers needed for 400 patients. Additional funds would be required for furnishing.

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Admissions to Westborough Insane Hospital (1886–1887)

Danvers Insane Hospital opened 1878

The Westborough Insane Hospital officially opened its doors for patient reception on December 1, 1886, following a proclamation by Governor George D. Robinson. The hospital's first patient, a Westborough resident, was admitted on December 6, 1886. The patient had the full attention of the doctors and nurses throughout this first day. ^[87]

Initial transfers and patient demographics

Following its opening, the State Board of Lunacy and Charity facilitated a series of transfers from other state hospitals to populate the new facility. These transfers included:

Worcester Insane Hospital opened 1833

Taunton Insane Hospital opened 1854

• December 7, 1886: 41 women from Worcester
• December 13, 1886: 31 men from Danvers
• December 17, 1886: 47 women from Taunton
• December 20, 1886: 3 men from Worcester
• December 24, 1886: 44 women from Danvers
• December 29, 1886: 6 women and 5 men from Northampton
• August 16, 1887: 20 women from Danvers
• Additionally, 3 women and 4 men were transferred at various other times from different institutions.

In total, 204 patients were received through these initial transfers. A significant characteristic of this initial patient population was that nearly all were chronic cases. The average duration of their insanity was noted to be more than six and a half years, suggesting a low probability of recovery for many of these individuals.

Patient preferences and transfer authority

Northampton Insane Hospital opened 1858

Among the transferred patients, approximately ninety expressed a preference for homoeopathic treatment, aligning with the hospital's intended focus. The remaining patients were transferred under the authority of Chapter 322, Section 7, of the 1884 laws, which permitted the transfer of "any other inmates of the State lunatic hospitals... to the Westborough Insane Hospital whenever the same is in a proper condition to receive them."

Despite initial anticipations, the proportion of untidy and violent patients among those transferred was noted as not being as large as expected. Appreciation was extended to the State Board of Lunacy and Charity and the authorities of the other hospitals for the generally fair condition of the transferred patients.

Readmissions

During the first year of operation, two individuals were admitted twice. One patient was discharged "unimproved" on both occasions. The other, a puerperal case, was initially discharged as "recovered" but was readmitted after three months, again pregnant and experiencing insanity.

Westborough State Hospital: A Half-Century Retrospective (1884-1934)

In 1934, as Westborough State Hospital marked its fiftieth anniversary, the board of trustees undertook a comprehensive review of the institution's origins, its foundational principles, and the individuals who championed its establishment. This retrospective aimed to honor the vision of its founders and reflect on the hospital's journey in mental healthcare. ^[88]

Inception and founding principles

The establishment of Westborough State Hospital in 1884 was a significant moment in Massachusetts' approach to mental health. The decision to create the hospital stemmed from a growing recognition of the need for specialized care for individuals suffering from mental illness. While specific details of the initial reasons for its establishment were being re-examined in 1934, it's understood that the prevailing philosophy at the time emphasized moral treatment and the provision of a humane environment for patients. The hospital was envisioned as a place of healing and recovery, a departure from earlier, often custodial, approaches to mental illness.

Influential figures and first board of trustees

The creation of Westborough State Hospital was the result of the dedication of several influential figures and the diligent work of its inaugural board of trustees. These individuals, whose names were being carefully documented in the 1934 review, played crucial roles in advocating for the hospital's construction, securing funding, and shaping its initial policies. Their commitment laid the groundwork for an institution that would serve the mental health needs of the Commonwealth for decades to come. The first board of trustees was tasked with the immense responsibility of overseeing the hospital's construction, hiring staff, and establishing the operational framework for patient care. ^[89]

Israel Tisdale Talbot:

Israel Tisdale Talbot (October 29, 1829 – July 2, 1899) was a prominent American physician and a pivotal figure in the advancement of homeopathic medicine and medical education in the United States. His career was marked by significant leadership roles, a dedication to higher educational standards, and a commitment to coeducation in medicine.

Early life and education

Born on October 29, 1829, Talbot pursued a rigorous medical education. He graduated from Hahnemann Medical College of Philadelphia in 1853, a leading institution for homeopathic medicine at the time. Demonstrating his commitment to a broad medical understanding, he also graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1854. Following his American studies, Talbot furthered his medical knowledge in Europe, undertaking two years of study abroad from 1854 to 1856.

Advocacy for homeopathy and professional leadership

Talbot was an ardent advocate for homeopathy throughout his career. On May 17, 1853, he joined the Massachusetts Homoeopathic Medical Society and immediately became active in promoting its principles. His dedication led him to hold every office within the society at various times. His influence extended beyond the state level, as he also held offices in national and international medical societies during his lifetime. In 1856, when the Massachusetts Homoeopathic Medical Society was incorporated, Talbot was recognized for his contributions and included among the corporators.

Revolutionizing medical education at Boston University

One of Talbot's most enduring legacies is his instrumental role in establishing and shaping the Boston University School of Medicine. On October 9, 1872, he presented a crucial report from a committee, strongly advocating for the creation of a homeopathic medical school. His efforts quickly bore fruit. On April 9, 1873, he reported for another committee that Boston University had agreed to incorporate the proposed college as a department. This led to the establishment of the medical school.

Dr. William F. Warren, president of Boston University, reflected on Talbot's profound impact twenty-six years later, stating that "From the opening of the Department till the date of his death, Dr. Talbot was annually elected by the Trustees to the Deanship of the Faculty." This highlights Talbot's consistent and unwavering leadership as dean of the faculty from the school's inception until his death.

President Warren also commended Talbot's progressive vision, noting that "He was a firm believer in coeducation," and that other medical colleges subsequently followed "the example first set in Boston University." This underscores Talbot's pioneering role in promoting gender equality in medical education.

Perhaps most significantly, Talbot was a trailblazer in advancing medical educational standards in America. President Warren remarked, "Dean Talbot was by instinct a leader... He saw the need of advancing the standard of medical education in America by establishing a curriculum, four years in duration, in place of the meagre courses of two, or at most three years then maintained in the old institutions." Warren credited Talbot's "high ideals" for Boston University's distinction as "the first of American Institutions to provide and maintain a four years' course preliminary to a doctorate in medicine and surgery." This initiative significantly elevated the quality and rigor of medical training in the United States.

Death

Israel Tisdale Talbot died on July 2, 1899, leaving behind a legacy of transformative contributions to medical education and the homeopathic movement.

Charles Russell Codman (Trustee)

Charles Russell Codman (October 28, 1829 – October 5, 1918) was a prominent American lawyer, politician, and civic leader who made significant contributions to education, healthcare, and public service in Massachusetts during the 19th and early 20th centuries. His career was marked by a deep commitment to public welfare and a reputation for integrity and wisdom.

Early life and education

Born on October 28, 1829, Codman received a distinguished education at Harvard University. He earned his Bachelor of Arts (A.B.) degree in 1849, followed by his Master of Arts (A.M.) in 1852, and his Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) in 1852. This extensive academic background laid the foundation for his multifaceted career.

Public service and political career

Codman's commitment to public service was evident from early in his career. He served on the School Committee of Boston from 1861 to 1862, demonstrating an early interest in education.

During the American Civil War, Codman served with distinction as Colonel of the 45th Massachusetts Volunteers from 1862 to 1864. His military service underscored his dedication to his country.

Following his military service, Codman entered state politics, serving as a member of the Massachusetts Senate from 1864 to 1865 and later as a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1872 to 1875.

Contributions to Harvard University

Codman maintained a strong connection with his alma mater throughout his life. He served as an Overseer of Harvard from 1878 to 1897 and held the prestigious position of President of the board of overseers in 1880, 1881, and 1887. His long tenure and leadership at Harvard highlight his enduring influence on the university.

Philanthropy and healthcare leadership

Codman was a dedicated philanthropist and played a crucial role in the development of several key institutions. He served as President of the Massachusetts Homoeopathic Hospital and president of the Boston Provident Association, demonstrating his commitment to healthcare and social welfare.

He was a founder of the Boston Home for Incurables in 1884, providing essential care for those with chronic illnesses. His vision also extended to environmental preservation, as he was a founder and trustee of the Public Reservations of Massachusetts.

Leadership in mental healthcare

One of Codman's most significant contributions was his extensive work in mental healthcare. He served as Chairman of the board of trustees of the Westborough Insane Hospital from 1884 to 1898. His dedication to the institution was recognized in the 1898 annual report of the Westborough Board, which stated:

"It is with profound regret that we have to lose the services of Col. Charles R. Codman, who has been a member and Chairman of the Board of Trustees since the foundation of this institution in 1884, who has been appointed on the new State Board of Insanity by the Governor. A wiser selection we do not believe could have been made, for we know that he will carry to that office rare ability and an eminently judicial and just line of action, and a conscientious discharge of the responsible duties which the new position will bring to him; and his fourteen years of experience in his labors for the insane will be of great value to his associates and the institutions under the care and supervision of this new Board."

Following this, he was appointed as an original Member of the State Board of Insanity, serving from September 15, 1898, to September 15, 1906. The State Board of Insanity's annual report for 1906 expressed deep regret at his declination of reappointment, adopting a resolution that lauded his "long and varied experience and unswerving fidelity to many public and private trusts" and praised his "dignity of manner, breadth and fairness of mind and purity of motive" which "always commanded confidence, while his kindness of heart and native courtesy endeared him to all of his associates."

Other notable affiliations

Beyond his civic and political roles, Codman was a director of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad, showcasing his involvement in the burgeoning industrial landscape. He was also a founder and member of the Union Club of Boston, a prominent social and intellectual hub.

Death

Charles Russell Codman died on October 5, 1918, at the age of 88, leaving behind a legacy of dedicated public service, philanthropic endeavors, and significant advancements in education and healthcare in Massachusetts.

Henry Sturgis Russell (Trustee)

Henry Sturgis Russell (June 21, 1838 – 1905) was an American soldier, businessman, and public servant known for his distinguished military career during the Civil War, his contributions to the business world, and his dedicated service to the city of Boston.

Early life and education

Born on June 21, 1838, Henry Sturgis Russell was a graduate of Harvard College in 1860, laying the groundwork for a life of diverse accomplishments.

Military service

Russell's most notable early public service was his military career during the American Civil War. He served as colonel of the 5th Massachusetts Cavalry. His bravery and leadership were recognized with a brevet to brigadier general upon his discharge.

A testament to his courage and leadership under duress, Russell was held captive in Libby Prison in Richmond, Virginia, a notorious Confederate prison where Union officers were segregated. During a time when Southern leaders threatened to retaliate for events in the North by executing Union prisoners, Russell famously restored the courage of his fellow prisoners. He addressed them, proposing himself as the first to be shot if such an act were to occur, a remarkable display of self-sacrifice and defiance in the face of extreme danger.

Business career

After the war, Russell transitioned to the business world, becoming a partner in the prominent firm of John M. Forbes & Company. This venture showcased his acumen beyond the military sphere.

Public service in Boston

Russell dedicated a significant portion of his life to public service in his home city of Boston. He was appointed a Police Commissioner of Boston in 1879, contributing to law enforcement and public safety. Later, he served as a Fire Commissioner from 1895 until his death ten years later in 1905, demonstrating a sustained commitment to the city's vital services.

Contributions as a trustee

Henry Sturgis Russell also served as a trustee for the Westborough Insane Hospital. His significant contributions were acknowledged in the institution's 1887 report:

"Col. H. S. Russell has been compelled by prolonged absence from the country to resign from the Board. In the early days of the institution, when no appropriation had been made for carrying on the farm, Colonel Russell made liberal advances for that purpose, and in all other respects his services have been very valuable. His associates greatly regret that he has found it necessary to leave the service of the State."

This report highlights his crucial financial support for the institution's farm operations during a critical period and the high regard in which his colleagues held his service.

Death

Henry Sturgis Russell died in 1905, leaving a legacy of military heroism, business success, and dedicated public service.

Lucius G. Pratt (trustee)

Lucius G. Pratt (May 3, 1824 – February 5, 1905) was an American businessman and civic leader, recognized for his entrepreneurial spirit in railroad development, his contributions to local government, and his philanthropic efforts in healthcare.

Early life and business ventures

Born on May 3, 1824, Lucius G. Pratt demonstrated an early aptitude for business, particularly in the burgeoning railroad industry. He was actively involved in the founding and development of the Mexican Central Railroad and served as a member of its first board of directors, a testament to his vision and leadership in international infrastructure projects. He also served as a director of the Everett National Bank of Boston, indicating his involvement in the financial sector.

Local government and civic engagement

Pratt was deeply involved in the civic life of Newton, Massachusetts. He served as a selectman of the village of Newton before its incorporation as a city. Following its transition to a city, he continued his public service as an alderman for two years. His commitment to good governance was further demonstrated by his role as chairman of the Civil Service of Newton.

Philanthropy and healthcare

Pratt was also a dedicated philanthropist, particularly in the realm of healthcare. He served as a trustee of the Newton Hospital, contributing to the development and oversight of local medical facilities.

His significant dedication to the hospital's construction and development was specifically highlighted in the 1886 report of the Building Committee:

"The Building Committee have given close personal attention to every detail of the work, having visited the hospital thirty-nine times during the year, fifteen of which visits occupied the entire day. The valuable services rendered by Mr. Pratt, the original chairman of the committee during the last year and the first four months of the present, made his resignation a serious loss to his coadjutors, inasmuch as his place could not then be filled by any other."

This tribute underscores his hands-on involvement, extensive time commitment, and the irreplaceable nature of his contributions as the original chairman of the Building Committee.

Death

Lucius G. Pratt died on February 5, 1905, leaving a legacy of entrepreneurship in railroad development, dedicated public service in local government, and impactful philanthropy in healthcare.

Francis A. Dewson (trustee)

Francis A. Dewson (July 30, 1828 – January 13, 1901) was an American Civil War veteran, financial agent, and community leader, known for his dedicated service to various institutions, particularly in the realm of finance and healthcare.

Early life and Civil War service

Born on July 30, 1828, Francis A. Dewson's early life saw him contribute to the Union cause during the American Civil War. He served as quartermaster in Colonel Codman's regiment, indicating a role in logistics and supply crucial to military operations. This connection to Colonel Charles Russell Codman, a prominent figure in Massachusetts, suggests early civic engagement.

Business and financial career

Following his military service, Dewson established himself as a respected figure in the financial world. He became the fiduciary agent of a large trust in Boston, demonstrating his expertise in managing financial assets and acting in a position of significant responsibility. His entrepreneurial spirit was also evident in his role as a founder and the first president of the Newton Cooperative Bank, contributing to the development of local financial institutions.

Trusteeship and contributions to healthcare

Dewson dedicated eleven years of his life to serving as a trustee of the Westborough Hospital from 1884 to 1895. His contributions were highly valued by his colleagues, as highlighted in the 1895 report:

"The trustees have sustained a great loss in the retirement of Mr. Francis A Dewson from the Board. Mr. Dewson's term of service ended during the year, and he declined a reappointment on account of the pressure of his private business. No member of the Board was more useful, efficient and devoted to the interests of the Hospital. He gave unstintingly to the work his time and thoughts, and his large experience of affairs was of the highest value in the work of construction at the time of the founding of the hospital, and its subsequent administration."

This tribute underscores his invaluable role in the founding and initial construction of the hospital, as well as his expertise in its subsequent administration. His "large experience of affairs" proved to be a significant asset, and his dedication was described as "unstinting."

Death

Francis A. Dewson died on January 13, 1901, leaving a legacy of military service, financial leadership, and impactful philanthropic contributions to the healthcare sector.

Archibald Henry Grimke (trustee)

Archibald Henry Grimké (1849 – February 25, 1930) was a distinguished African American lawyer, writer, editor, diplomat, and civil rights leader. Born into a complex family history in the South, he became a prominent voice for racial equality and a respected intellectual figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Early life and education

Archibald Henry Grimké was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1849. He was the son of Henry Grimké, a prominent judge with distinguished ancestry, and Nancy Weston, an enslaved woman. This unique heritage placed him within a family known for its abolitionist fervor; his aunts, Sarah and Angelina Grimké, were renowned and outspoken abolitionists who worked tirelessly to arouse public opposition to slave-holding in the years preceding the Civil War. His early life in Charleston was marked by the tumultuous period leading up to and during the Civil War, and he was even under fire when the city was bombarded by Union forces in 1863.

Grimké pursued higher education, receiving his A.B. and A.M. degrees from Lincoln University, one of the nation's historically Black colleges and universities. He then went on to earn his LL.B. from Harvard University, demonstrating his intellectual prowess and commitment to legal scholarship.

Legal, literary, and diplomatic career

Grimké embarked on a diverse and impactful career. He practiced law, utilizing his legal training to advocate for justice. He was also a prolific writer for newspapers and an editor of a paper, using his pen to shape public opinion and disseminate information. His literary contributions extended to authoring several books, further cementing his role as an intellectual figure.

In 1894, Archibald H. Grimké was appointed United States consul to Santo Domingo by President Grover Cleveland. This diplomatic role showcased his national recognition and trust. His departure from a trusteeship, as described below, was directly due to this significant appointment.

Civil rights advocacy and leadership

Grimké was a dedicated civil rights advocate. He served as President of the American Negro Academy for sixteen years, a leading organization for Black intellectuals and scholars that promoted academic excellence and civil rights. He held other honorable positions throughout his life, consistently working towards the betterment of African Americans.

Trusteeship and public service

Prior to his diplomatic appointment, Grimké served as an original member of the board of trustees of the State Insane Hospital, having been appointed by Governor Robinson in 1884. His colleagues deeply regretted his resignation in 1894, as expressed in the institution's report:

"Mr. Archibald H. Grimke of Hyde Park resigned from the Board on the 20th of September, having been appointed United States Consul to Santo Domingo. (By President Cleveland). He was one of its original members, having been appointed by Governor Robinson in 1884. His associates greatly regret that the institution has lost his services. For ten years he has given it a large portion of his time and his best thought. The duties of secretary of the Board have been performed by him with conscientious care, and in the general management and oversight of the hospital he has been earnest, faithful and wise."

This testament highlights his ten years of dedicated service, his "conscientious care" as secretary of the Board, and his "earnest, faithful and wise" contributions to the general management and oversight of the hospital.

Death

Archibald Henry Grimké died on February 25, 1930, leaving an indelible mark on American history as a dedicated advocate for civil rights, a distinguished intellectual, and a committed public servant.

Mrs. Phoebe J. Leonard (trustee)

Phoebe J. Leonard (1838 – November 7, 1902) was an American woman recognized for her knowledge of institutional management and her brief, yet valuable, service as a trustee of the state Insane hospital. She was the wife of Captain Leonard, who served as the Superintendent of the State Farm at Bridgewater, suggesting her familiarity with large-scale administrative operations.

Trusteeship and institutional knowledge

Phoebe J. Leonard served as a trustee of the Westborough hospital for a period of two years. Her tenure, though relatively short, was highly regarded for the expertise she brought to the board. Her prior experience and knowledge of institutional management, likely gained through her husband's role at the State Farm at Bridgewater, proved to be of significant value to the hospital. This background would have provided her with insights into the logistical, operational, and administrative aspects of running a large institution.

Resignation

Despite her valuable contributions, Mrs. Leonard resigned from her position as a trustee. Her resignation was "doubtless due to the distance to the hospital and the interference with her duties at home." This suggests the practical challenges of balancing her responsibilities, including managing a household, with the demands of a distant trusteeship, especially given the travel logistics of the late 19th century.

Death

Phoebe J. Leonard passed away on November 7, 1902. While her period of formal service as a trustee was brief, her acknowledged "knowledge of institutional management" indicates a valuable, if unrecorded in detail, contribution to the hospital's early development or administration.

Mrs. Emily Talbot (Trustee)

Emily Talbot (February 22, 1834 – October 29, 1900) was a highly influential American educator, social reformer, and advocate for women's education and public health. She was a tireless organizer and leader in numerous groundbreaking initiatives, leaving a significant and lasting impact on education, healthcare, and social progress in the late 19th century. She was married to Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot, a prominent figure in homeopathic medicine.

Early life and education

Born on February 22, 1834, Emily Talbot demonstrated an early aptitude for education, beginning to teach school at the remarkably young age of sixteen. This early start foreshadowed a life dedicated to learning and advocacy. She married Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot on October 29, 1856, upon his return from two years of medical studies in Europe. The couple further enriched their understanding of the world by touring Europe in 1857.

Contributions to homeopathic medicine and healthcare

Emily Talbot was deeply involved in the homeopathic medical community, largely alongside her husband, Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot. In 1859, she was actively involved in the support of the Boston Homoeopathic Medical Dispensary. Her organizational skills were evident in her role as the organizer and first president of the "Meissen," an association of wives of institute members, which likely served as a social and supportive network for women connected to the American Institute of Homoeopathy. Her dedication was recognized when she was made an honorable member of the American Institute of Homoeopathy in 1887.

Further demonstrating her commitment to healthcare, she was the organizer and first president of the Maternity, an adjunct of the Massachusetts Homoeopathic Hospital. This initiative provided vital support for maternal health, showcasing her foresight in addressing specific healthcare needs. She was also a director of the Massachusetts Infant Asylum, continuing her work in supporting vulnerable populations.

Pioneering women's education and social reform

Emily Talbot was a formidable leader in advocating for and establishing educational opportunities for women. She played a crucial role as a leader in establishing the Boston Latin School for Girls, a significant step in providing rigorous academic education for young women.

Her intellectual curiosity and commitment to social discourse were evident in her cooperation with Colonel Thomas Wentworth Higginson in founding the Round Table, a notable literary or intellectual society of the time. She served as its secretary until her death, ensuring its continued operation and influence.

Talbot was also instrumental in the organization of the Massachusetts Society for the University Education of Women, serving as a director for several years. This society aimed to expand access to higher education for women, a progressive stance for the era. A testament to her forward-thinking vision for women's academic advancement, she was also an originator of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae in October 1881, an organization that would later become the American Association of University Women (AAUW).

Trusteeship and legacy

Emily Talbot was one of the original members of the board of trustees of the Westborough hospital, having been appointed in 1884. Her profound and intelligent interest in the hospital's welfare was evident throughout her "long connection with the hospital." The 1901 report from the trustees profoundly acknowledged her contributions:

"Since the last report of the trustees, Mrs. Emily Talbot, one of the original board of trustees, appointed in 1884, has died. During her long connection with the hospital Mrs. Talbot always manifested deep and intelligent interest in everything pertaining to it. She was constant in her attendance at the meetings of the trustees, and also made many visits among the patients, always showing a warm personal interest in their welfare. She was particularly interested in the plans for the acute building, which was built in 1898; and in memory of her husband, Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot.

This tribute highlights her consistent attendance at meetings, her personal engagement with patients, and her particular interest in the "acute building" constructed in 1898. In a fitting tribute to both her and her husband's dedication to healthcare, this building was named the 'Talbot Building' in memory of Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot.

Death

Emily Talbot died on October 29, 1900. Her life was a testament to the power of dedicated leadership and advocacy, leaving an indelible mark on educational opportunities for women, the development of homeopathic medicine, and the social fabric of her community.

The shifting landscape of mental healthcare (c. 1900 – 1950)

By the early 20th century, a quiet revolution was beginning to stir within the often-stagnant world of mental healthcare. For generations, the primary approach to "insanity" had been largely one of institutionalization, with large asylums serving as the primary, and often only, recourse for those deemed mentally unwell. These institutions, while sometimes well-intentioned, frequently became places of custodial care rather than active treatment, and their ever-increasing size and number reflected a societal struggle to cope with mental illness.

However, a growing cohort of research workers across various disciplines – from neurology and psychology to early pharmacology – began to challenge the prevailing understanding of mental disorders. Through meticulous observation, groundbreaking experiments, and a nascent scientific methodology, these thousands of dedicated individuals started to unravel the complex biological, psychological, and social factors contributing to mental ill-health.

The burgeoning knowledge gained from this fervent research hinted at a transformative future. There was a dawning realization that "insanity" was not a singular, immutable condition, but rather a spectrum of illnesses, many of which might be amenable to intervention and even recovery. This optimistic outlook fostered a venture to hope that the relentless expansion of institutions for the insane would soon be curtailed.

The ultimate aspiration, almost visionary for its time, was that these imposing structures, with their extensive buildings and grounds, might eventually be repurposed. Instead of serving as somber, often isolated, confines for the mentally ill. This sentiment reflected a profound desire for a future where mental illness would be better understood, more effectively treated, and where the prevailing architectural symbols of its historical burden could be transformed into something more beneficial and humane for society at large.

This period marked the very beginnings of a shift from purely custodial care to a more research-driven, treatment-oriented approach, laying the groundwork for the eventual development of modern psychiatry and community-based mental health services.

Trustee's comment of 1934

"It is probable that, in the coming half-century, one form after another will yield to the knowledge gained by the thousands of research workers; and we venture to hope that the growth of institutions for the insane will be checked, and that the buildings and ground may be used for other and pleasanter purposes". ^[90]

The Westborough State Hospital closed in 2010.

Bird's eye view and layout of the institution

Birds eye view of the Hospital 1886

Layout of the Hospital 1886

Notes

1. Theodore Lyman's response to the commissions circular in 1848
2. List of State Institutions under their supervision in 1864
3. Inventory of farm equipment in 1857
4. 1 boy each died in 1881 and 1882
5. The annual reports recounts the work that was done on the cemetery over the years. The investigative report of 1877 recounts the cemetery as being 1/4 mile from the main building.
6. Martin Brimmer was the son of the 9th mayor of Boston Martin Brimmer
7. The cottage system is also known as the "family system". The individual buildings were usually referred to as cottages or houses. In Westborough the houses were referred to as "Trust Houses", with each house having its own name.
8. Believed to be the first reform school in the United States created under the cottage system.
9. Each house is under the charge of a gentleman and his wife who have control and management of the boys, subject to the general rules of the institution, and subordinate to the superintendent.
10. Discharge statistics of the State Reform School for 1848–1863
11. Additional information on Judge Thomas Russell
12. More on Father Haskins
13. More on the school ship "Mercury"
14. Information of the Hunneman hand drawn pumper. Video of the operation of a hand pumper.
15. State Farm Station was located approximately 3/4 mile north from the institution along the Agricultural Branch Railroad in Northborough and opened in 1855. It would later be renamed the Hospital Station and later still the Talbot Station. The State Farm Station is labeled on this map as the depot.
16. Information on Samual M Griggs can be found in The History of Westborough Massachusetts
17. Willow Park and Bela J. Stone farm
18. State Primary School at Monson
19. See "Westborough State Hospital: A Half-Century Retrospective (1884-1934)" for trustees background.

References

1. First Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1864). 1864. p. 168.
2. Snedden, David (1907). Administration and Educational Work of American Juvenile Reform Schools. Teachers College, Columbia University. p. 10.
3. Society for the Improvement and Discipline and for the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders. 1818. p. 12.
4. Baynes, Thomas Spencer (1889). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 253.
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7. 1st to 12th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1847–1858). 1848. pp. 102–104.
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25. 1st to 12th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1847–1858). 1852. p. 272.
26. 1st to 12th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1847–1858). 1853. p. 274.
27. 1st to 12th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1847–1858). 1854. p. 332.
28. Annual report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. 1855. pp. 8–40.
29. Annual report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture (1859). State of Massachusetts. 1859. pp. 15–23.
30. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. State of Massachusetts. 1906. pp. 342–344.
31. Annual report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. State of Massachusetts. 1858. pp. 200–201.
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40. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). State of Massachusetts. 1874. p. 510.
41. Investigation into the management and discipline of the State Reform School at Westborough. State of Massachusetts. 1877. p. 730.
42. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). State of Massachusetts. 1878. p. 700.
43. Acts and resolves passed by the General Court. State of Massachusetts. 1831. p. 574.
44. "The magazine of The Harvard Crimson".
45. Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1883. 1884. p. 196.
46. Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1883. 1884. p. 198.
47. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865). 1859. pp. 6–7.
48. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865). 1860. p. 121.
49. Meyers, David (2009). Central Ohio's Historic Prisons. Arcadia Publishing. p. 65. ISBN   9780738560038.
50. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865). State of Massachusetts. p. 162.
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52. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865). State of Massachusetts. 1860. p. 122.
53. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865). 1860. pp. 136–140.
54. Knickerbocker, Wendy (2014). Bard of the Bethel: The Life and Times of Boston's Father Taylor, 1793–1871. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 438. ISBN   9781443862325.
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56. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT of the BOARD OF STATE CHARITIES. 1865. pp. 272–286.
57. Ninth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1872). 1872. pp. 142–143.
58. Tenth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1873). State of Massachusetts. 1874. p. 158.
59. Ninth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1872). State of Massachusetts. 1872. pp. 122–127.
60. Ninth Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1872). State of Massachusetts. 1873. pp. 36–38.
61. First Annual Report of the Board of State Charities (1864). State of Massachusetts. 1865. pp. 120–135.
62. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). State of Massachusetts. 1878. p. 602.
63. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). 1878. p. 738.
64. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). 1878. p. 28.
65. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). State of Massachusetts. p. 187.
66. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). State of Massachusetts. 1878. p. 4.
67. Investigation into the management and discipline of the State Reform School. State of Massachusetts. 1877. p. 21.
68. Investigation into the management and discipline of the State Reform School. State of Massachusetts. 1877. p. 103.
69. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878). State of Massachusetts. 1871. p. 320.
70. Investigation into the management and discipline of the State Reform School. State of Massachusetts. 1877. p. 141.
71. Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1883. 1884.
72. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). 1883. p. 626.
73. Fourth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity of Massachusetts (1882). State of Massachusetts. 1882. p. 172.
74. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough State Hospital. State of Massachusetts. 1934. p. 280.
75. Fifth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1883. State of Massachusetts. 1883. p. 176.
76. Sixth Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1884. State of Massachusetts. 1884. p. 150.
77. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). 1884. p. 674.
78. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough State Hospital. 1935. p. 320.
79. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). 1885. p. 798.
80. Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1886. 1887. p. 54.
81. Eighth Annual Report of the State Board of Lunacy and Charity of Massachusetts. 1886. 1887. pp. 54–60.
82. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). 1884. p. 748.
83. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879-86). 1884. pp. 748–752.
84. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough Insane Hospital. State of Massachusetts. 1886. p. 30.
85. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough Insane Hospital. 1886. pp. 34–48.
86. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough Insane Hospital. 1885. p. 54.
87. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough Insane Hospital. 1887. p. 80.
88. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough State Hospital. 1934. pp. 280–300.
89. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough State Hospital. 1934. pp. 280–284.
90. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Westborough State Hospital. 1934. p. 284.

General references

1. 1st to 12th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1847–1858)
2. 13th to 19th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1859–1865)
3. 20th to 37th Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Reform School (1868–1878)
4. 1st to 8th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1879–86)
5. 9th to 16th Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Primary and Reform Schools. (1887–1894)
6. Annual Reports of the Board of State Charities (Volumes 1864–1877)
7. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture (1854–1857)
8. Annual Reports of the Westborough Insane Hospital (1920-1925)
9. Annual Reports of the Westborough Insane Hospital (1885-1926)
10. Alien Passengers and Foreign Paupers (1852–1863)
11. Annual State Board of Insanity
12. Annual Reports of Massachusetts Board of Lunacy and Charity (1865–1898)
13. Annual Reports of the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity (1880–1899)
14. Investigation into the management and discipline of the State Reform School (1877)
15. Suggestions in Regard to the Proposed Removal of the State Reform School (1882)
16. On the penitentiary system in the United States and its application in France
17. History of Massachusetts statutes relating to delinquent youth
18. Administration and Educational Work of American Juvenile Reform Schools
19. Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline and for the Reformation of Juvenile Offenders  
20. Society for the Prevention of Pauperism in the City of New York.
21. Our City Charities – The New-York House of Refuge for Juvenile Delinquents. The New York Times, January 23, 1860, page 2