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Elias Carter of Springfield, James Savage of Southborough
Main contractor
Mr. Daniel Davies of Boston
Known for
First publicly funded Reform School in the US
The State Reform School for Boys in Westborough, Massachusetts, was a pioneering state institution dedicated to the reformation of juvenile offenders, operating from its establishment in 1848 until its relocation in 1884. Recognized as the oldest publicly funded reform school[1] in the United States, its creation represented a significant social experiment in 19th-century America, embarking on an ambitious endeavor to test whether a structured, state-sponsored environment could effectively redirect "delinquent" youth, impart moral discipline, and prepare them for productive lives within society.
From its inception, the school embodied this grand undertaking in large-scale juvenile rehabilitation. Initially designed for 300 boys, the institution rapidly expanded to accommodate growing demand, quickly becoming overcrowded and challenging its initial premise of individualized reform within a congregate setting. These inherent difficulties were starkly revealed by a devastating fire in 1859, which led the school to explore adaptive approaches, including a novel nautical branch for older boys and the early implementation of a "cottage system" in rebuilt sections, aiming for a more familial, less impersonal environment.
Despite these varied reform efforts, the State Reform School for Boys ultimately faced significant challenges. The nautical branch was later disbanded, and a riot in 1877, coupled with public revelations of cruel punishments, led to widespread outcry and legislative hearings. These events exposed the ethical perils and practical limitations of the prevailing reformatory theories of the time. By 1880, the Massachusetts legislature repurposed the land and buildings for the Westborough Insane Hospital, largely deeming the reform school, in its congregate form, a failed experiment.
History
Massachusetts's vision for juvenile reform (1846–1847)
A significant movement for juvenile reform began to take shape in Massachusetts in early 1846. Concerned magistrates and citizens of the Commonwealth, including Chief Justice Shaw, brought a petition before the General Court, advocating for the creation of a state institution dedicated to the reformation of juvenile offenders. This appeal spurred the appointment of a committee, chaired by E. Rockwood Hoar (who later became a Supreme Court Justice) to investigate the matter. On February 20, 1846, this committee issued a circular[2] containing nine key questions regarding the formation of a reform school, seeking broad public input. The overwhelming responses from citizens unequivocally confirmed the pressing need for such an institution.[note 1]
Recognizing this critical need and public support, on April 16, 1846, the governor was authorized to appoint three commissioners. The appointed commissioners were Alfred Dwight Foster of Worcester, Robert Rantoul, Senior, of Beverly, and Samuel H. Walley of Roxbury. Their mandate was clear: to acquire suitable land, oversee the construction of a dedicated building, and establish a comprehensive system of governance for what would become the first public institution of its kind in the United States.
A pivotal figure in this nascent movement was Theodore Lyman II, a former mayor of Boston. Lyman, who held a deep interest in juvenile reform and had previously served as president of the board of managers for Thompson Island's reform efforts, actively responded to the committee's circular. .
By 1847, the appointed commissioners had made substantial progress. They acquired the 180-acre farm of Lovett Peters in Westborough, situated on the north side of Chauncy Lake, for $9,000. Shortly thereafter, the Trustees purchased the farm and additional land across the road for $3,500. Following the school's official opening, an extra 23 acres were acquired from the Warren Farm, located west of the main building, bringing the total landholding to 280 acres.
A crucial milestone in the construction phase occurred on June 15, 1847, when the contract for the main building was awarded to Daniel Davies of Boston, who submitted the lowest bid of $52,000. The contract stipulated a completion date of December 1848. On the very same day, the commissioners officially selected the precise location for the building on the recently acquired 180-acre old Peters Farm.[3]
The foundational experiment: establishment and early years (1846–1859)
Acquisition of Peters Farm and subsequent land purchases
The commissioners selected the farm of Lovett Peters, located in Westborough, as the site for the school. The farm comprised 180 acres and 105 rods, bordering Chauncey Pond.[4] The purchase price for Peters Farm was $9,000.
The school was initially designed to accommodate 150 boys, with a long-term plan for up to 300. The commissioners emphasized that this was to be a reform school, not a prison, and aimed to create a facility that would promote rehabilitation. The State Reform School for Boys operated from 1848 to 1884.
Architectural design and construction (1847–1848)
Commissioning and early challenges
The initial phase of the project was marked by a slight delay in the commission's organization due to uncertainties surrounding the eligibility of one of its members. However, by May 11, 1847, the commissioners convened in Westborough. They promptly acquired the previously submitted plans and explanations for the proposed buildings from the secretary of the Commonwealth's office. These documents were then handed over to Elias Carter, Esq., of Springfield, and James S. Savage, Esq., of Southborough, both esteemed architects and builders. Their initial task was to estimate the cost of erecting the buildings as per the provided plans, though they had no intention of contracting for the construction themselves.
A subsequent meeting on May 25 revealed a significant hurdle: the estimates from Messrs. Carter & Savage considerably exceeded the legislative appropriation. The architects were asked to revise their calculations, and their report on June 3rd confirmed that the proposed buildings could not be constructed within the allocated budget.
Navigating budget constraints and contract award
Despite the financial limitations, the commissioners interpreted the legislative resolves as an imperative to provide accommodations for three hundred boys. They generally found the existing plans satisfactory and felt justified in proceeding with construction even if the cost surpassed the initial appropriation. However, aware that previous commissioners had assured the legislature that $45,000 would cover all expenses, the current commission took a cautious approach.
To reduce expenses, several omissions were directed in the original plans. These revised plans and explanations were then submitted to other competent builders. Various offers were received, ranging from $52,000 to $65,000, with the original designer submitting a bid of $62,500.
On June 15, 1847, the contract was ultimately awarded to Mr. Daniel Davies, of Boston, who submitted the lowest offer from a competent and responsible builder. On the same day, the commissioners selected the building site on the farm.[5]
Erecting the State Reform School
Location and layout
Reform School Elevation PlanPlan of First Floor
The school buildings are strategically situated on an eminence, offering a southward slope towards Chauncey Pond, approximately 48 rods away and 78 feet above its water level. All structures are interconnected, forming a cohesive complex that encloses a central playground or court. This court, measuring 118 feet long and 84 feet 4 inches wide, features a central shed providing shelter during inclement weather.[6]
Architectural design
The buildings' external walls span 160 feet in both the front and rear, and 200 feet on each side, forming a substantial rectangular footprint. The architectural design emphasizes practicality and durability over elaborate ornamentation. The foundations are constructed from stone, with walls of brick, and the roof is slated. While little was expended on mere embellishment, no feature affecting the practical value or permanence of the structures was intentionally omitted.
Building sections
Wings: The east and west wings are two stories high.
Centre Building: This central structure rises to three stories.
Towers: Two distinct towers, five stories high, mark the building's profile.
Internal layout and facilities
Centre Building: Houses the apartments for the superintendent and his family, rooms for other employed persons, the chapel, and the main office. The office's strategic placement, with lighting from the central court, allowed for constant supervision of boys during playtime. Opposite the office are seven solitary dormitories designated for disciplinary purposes.
East Wing: Contains the apartments for the steward and his family, the main kitchen, washing and ironing rooms, sewing rooms, store rooms, a hospital, and dormitories for the boys.Plan of Second Floor
West Wing: Features two large school rooms with adjacent recitation rooms, alongside dormitories configured similarly to those in the east wing.
Rear Section:
Second Story: Dedicated to a large workshop, designed with a movable partition to allow for efficient heating of only occupied areas. Access is via stairs from a corridor opening onto the central court.
First Story: Comprises the refectory (connected to the kitchen), an arched passage-way (10 feet wide, serving as an entrance to the court and secured by gates), a room for coal and wood storage, a bathing-room equipped for cold and warm bathing and regular ablutions, and water closets. All water closets connect to a drain that channels all wastewater to a distant reservoir for compost.
The grand opening: dedicating a new epoch (1848)
On the December 7, 1848, Emory Washburn of Lowell gave an address to members of government and many other citizens assembled from the various portions of the commonwealth at the new Reform School in Westborough.[7]
The early to mid-19th century at the State Reform School for Boys in Westborough, Massachusetts, was characterized by a foundational experiment in juvenile rehabilitation. This period saw the rapid development of its operational model, an ever-evolving system of inmate governance, and the practical challenges of running a large institution dedicated to reforming "delinquent" youth through structured daily routines, education, and labor.
Boys making chairs in the workshop (1871)
Inmate classification and conduct system
Upon admittance, boys were classified by age, temperance (disposition), education level, and physical abilities. This system informed their grouping in dormitories by age, classrooms by prior education, and work assignments based on their temperance and physical capabilities.
A progressive conduct grading system was central to inmate discipline and motivation, ranging from Grade 1 ("truth and honor," the highest) to Grade 4 (lowest). New admissions started in the third grade, with promotions for good conduct and demotions as punishment. This system applied across all institutional settings—schoolroom, workshop, playground, and farm. Incentives for good behavior included privileges such as excursions on the lake in summer or sledding and skating in winter. These classification and grading systems were designed to adapt as the institution evolved and understanding of best practices in juvenile reform improved.
Labor and vocational training
Ironing in the Laundry Room
Inmates actively participated in the running of the institution, with their labor divided into farming, mechanical, and domestic employments. The belief was that hands-on work would instill discipline and prepare the boys for productive lives, while also contributing to the school's self-sufficiency.
Domestic Employment: Boys were responsible for tasks such as washing, ironing, and cooking, as well as making and mending their own clothes.
Farming: The farm was a cornerstone of the work experience, intended to benefit the boys' physical development and knowledge, and crucially, to defray the cost of the Reform School through agricultural output. Farming activities encompassed work on the institution's farm and garden, labor in neighbors' gardens, and other outdoor tasks. A significant duty involved hauling coal; initially, this was a 2.5-mile journey from the Westborough train station, a distance reduced to about 1 mile from the new State Farm Station after the Agricultural Branch Railroad opened to Northborough in 1855.
The boys undertook substantial manual labor for the new building's construction, including excavating the cellar, trench walls, and digging/drawing nearly all stones for the cellar walls. This effort resulted in considerable savings for the State. However, these demanding construction tasks significantly increased farm expenses, as tools and an additional team of four oxen were purchased by the farm. Mr. Leach, the steward and farmer, and his assistants were highly praised for accomplishing this vast amount of labor with the boys. Mr. Leach, a long-serving and respected figure, was credited for his positive influence over the inmates.
Detailed labor reports from Mr. Leach indicated 23,219 days of boy labor (six hours each). This included significant contributions to the "enlargement" (3,719 days), "town road" (2,746 days), "grounds" (1,111 days), "shop cellar" (183 days), and "steam mill building" (344 days). The majority, 15,117 days, were dedicated to direct farm work, including 1,552 days for permanent improvements like road making and wall construction.
Mechanical Employment: Two workshops were included in the original building design for vocational training and commodity production. A shoe shop and a sewing and knitting shop were established. The smallest boys typically worked in the sewing shop, producing all necessary clothing and textiles for the institution. Larger boys were taught to manufacture and repair shoes and boots for internal use and sale.
By 1852, the shoe shop operations were contracted out to a local business, which provided materials and oversight, paying the State 10 cents per boy per day, with no direct compensation for the boys. However, by 1855, shoe-making significantly declined due to reduced demand, and sewing and knitting labor also decreased. To maintain employment, a chair seating department was added in 1856, with 111 boys producing 27,000 seats and 2,100 backs that year.
Governance and administration of the experiment
This outlines the foundational structure, operational procedures, and daily routines governing the State Reform School, as derived from its established by-laws. It details the roles and responsibilities of its governing board of trustees, various officers, and the expectations for both staff and the boys under their care.[9]
The legislature would appropriate yearly budgets for the institution, appropriate special budgets and pass general laws regarding the reform school based upon recommendations of the Trustees and Superintendent.
The governor would appoint trustees and board members.
The Board of State Charities would investigate and supervise the whole system of public charitable and correctional institutions of the State and make such recommendations, changes and additional provisions as they may deem necessary for the economical and efficient administration of those institutions.[10][note 2]
Board of trustees: oversight and leadership
The board of trustees serves as the primary governing body of the State Reform School, ensuring its proper functioning and adherence to its mission. The seven member volunteer board would hire superintendents and other officers, make monthly visits and hold monthly meetings to review the operations of the institutions. They would manage the Lyman and Mary Lamb funds for the betterment of the institution. Make recommendations to the legislature regarding funding and additional laws that may be warranted. Transfer inmates between charitable institutions and coordinate the selection of inmates and masters for the indentured servant program.
Organization and appointments
Following the annual appointment of its members by the governor's commission, the board of trustees must organize promptly. The trustee named first in the governor's commission is responsible for calling the initial organizational meeting. During this crucial meeting, the board appoints a chairman, a secretary, and an executive committee comprising three Trustees.
Should the first-named Trustee be unable to fulfill their duties due to death, sickness, or absence, the next-named Trustee assumes their responsibilities until the board officially appoints a new chairman at its subsequent meeting.
Roles of the chairman and secretary
Chairman: The chairman is empowered to convene board meetings whenever deemed expedient or upon the request of any two Trustees. They preside over all meetings and act as the central point of contact for all communications related to the school's affairs, both receiving and preparing them.
Secretary: The secretary is responsible for maintaining accurate records of all Board proceedings. Their duties also include preparing or overseeing the preparation of all documents, statements, and notices as directed by the board or the chairman. Furthermore, the secretary must provide written notice of all meetings to each trustee.
Officers of the institution: roles and compensation
The board of trustees appoints a specific set of officers to manage the daily operations of the State Reform School. These officers serve at the pleasure of the board and are expected to provide at least six months' notice before resigning.
Appointed positions
The following key officers are appointed by the trustees:
Superintendent
Steward
Chaplain and teacher
Matron
Watchman
Treasurer of the board
Such assistants as deemed necessary.
Key officials and terms of service
The following lists detail the individuals who served in these key administrative roles.
Governors
George N. Briggs (Whig) - 1844–1851 (He was governor in 1848 and continued until 1851)
Early challenges and adaptive strategies (1850s–1870s)
Original building with expansion
Persistent overcrowding and advocacy for expansion
Despite its success, the school was consistently "filled to overflowing" for the majority of the year 1850, often accommodating a number of inmates far exceeding its proper capacity. This urgent demand forced the Executive Committee of the Board to issue notices in September, temporarily halting further admissions due to a critical lack of space. Consequently, many boys deemed suitable for the institution's rehabilitative discipline were regrettably sent to "houses of correction" or left without intervention, "to infest the streets and places of public resort."[13]
The Trustees, recognizing the profound moral and economic benefits that the school had already delivered through its influence on over five hundred admitted boys, strongly advocated for expansion. They believed it was equally vital to extend these influences to the "other five hundred, more or less," who could not currently be accommodated. Their inquiries led to the conviction that the existing establishment could be enlarged to nearly double its capacity without a proportional increase in staff or other operational costs, an efficiency they argued would not be possible if a separate, independent institution were to be established. They respectfully urged the government to give "careful consideration" to this proposed enlargement.
Legislative action
A significant expansion, aiming to bolster its capacity and providing enhanced remedial accommodation for the boys under its care. This enlargement project was set in motion by legislative action in March 1852, which provided the necessary funding and entrusted the board of trustees with the critical duty of superintending and directing the construction of the required new buildings.[14]
Following the legislative mandate, a special meeting of the board of trustees was convened in April 1852. During this meeting, various architectural plans for the proposed expansion were presented by different architects. After careful consideration, the Trustees selected the most suitable plan, and advertisements soliciting proposals from contractors were promptly issued.
The committee overseeing the expansion project proceeded with considerable promptness despite prevailing circumstances. By June 1852, construction officially commenced.
A report submitted in 1853 by Edward Lamb, Esq., the Superintendent of the work, provided an update on the progress and current condition of the new building. According to Lamb's report, the walls of the building are now erected, the roof has been installed and is nearly slated, a portion of the windows are in place, and a small section of the interior has been plastered.[15]
Lamb noted that due to the approaching colder season and the potential for frost to damage plastering, as well as the anticipated shrinkage of timber and settling of the building, it was deemed advisable to defer the remaining plastering work until the warming fixtures are introduced. Despite these considerations and challenges such as the initial late start, a period of drought, and a high demand for skilled workmen in areas where construction materials are being prepared, the Superintendent affirmed that the work has progressed as rapidly as could be reasonably expected.
Under the terms of the contract, the new structure is slated to be completed and ready for occupancy by November 1854. The board of trustees expresses confidence that, based on current progress and the dedication of those involved, there is no discernible reason why the building should not be finished and available by the stipulated date.
Building specifications and features
The reform school underwent significant expansion and development, highlighted by a substantial new chapel and large addition. The new structure boasts impressive dimensions, measuring 225 feet in length (front and rear) and 200 feet on its easterly end. It was designed to house 250 boys, along with the necessary officers and assistants required for their care, instruction, and training.
The building's interior was thoughtfully laid out to support the school's mission:
Chapel: The chapel was completed along with the addition of 1854. Conveniently located between the original building and the new addition it was easily accessed from either department. It was large enough to accommodate 600 boys with a balcony area. The chapel was heated by a furnace, it was well ventilated and lighted with large windows supplied with blinds and furnished with comfortable settees. The chapel was used for the morning devotional exercises, for the Sunday school and worship. Every Sunday the reform school would send a carriage to the village of Westborough to transport chaplains from different churches and faiths to help conduct Sunday school at the chapel.
School-rooms: Several commodious school-rooms were incorporated to facilitate the educational programs offered at the school.
Hospital Department: An ample and well-arranged hospital department was established, designed to meet the probable medical needs of the school under ordinary circumstances.
The third department: The third department was an area of the new building created to house the more hardened, boys segregated and isolated from the others. The third department consisted of 20 cells (lodges) and a workshop. The boys in the third department would work 8 hours a day in the workshop and for the rest of the day and night would be spent in their "lodge" where they would eat, read and sleep except twice a day they would be taken to the yard when no other boys were present. The discipline in this department was stricter than the other departments but the food was the same as the other boys are fed. Time spent in the lodge was determined by the individual boys behavior.
Cost and funding
The total cost for the construction of the building and its fixtures amounted to $54,752.53. This figure does not include the substantial amount of labor contributed by the boys residing at the institution or the use of the school's teams.
Funding for the project primarily came from the Lyman Fund, which provided $50,000. The remaining balance of $4,752.53 was anticipated to be covered by future appropriations from the state legislature.
Dedication ceremony
The completion of the new building was marked by a dedication ceremony on November 3, 1854. The event featured "appropriate exercises," including an "eloquent Address" delivered by Nathaniel P. Banks, Jr. The ceremony was attended by a large and distinguished gathering of individuals, including state officials, prominent citizens interested in similar institutions, and numerous residents from Westborough and the surrounding area who supported the school's mission. Their presence underscored the community's interest in and commitment to the welfare and rehabilitation of the boys at the State Reform School.[16]
The Westborough Experimental Farm (1854–1857)
Artist rendering of the Reform School showing the farm barn and agricultural landscape
The Massachusetts Board of Agriculture's Experimental Farm was an agricultural research and demonstration farm operated by the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture in conjunction with the State Reform School at Westborough during the mid-19th century. Established in 1854, the farm aimed to advance agricultural science and practice in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts through systematic experimentation and improved cultivation methods, while also providing vocational training and employment for the juvenile offenders housed at the Reform School.[17]
Establishment and purpose
Prior to 1854, the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture recognized a significant need for "reliable and accurate experiments in Agriculture." While individual farmers conducted valuable, sometimes costly, experiments, there was a lack of coordinated effort, leading to a "confusion of ideas respecting the many questions still remaining to be answered in agricultural science." To address this, the board sought a suitable tract of land with varied soils to conduct systematic experiments and serve the needs of the farming community.
The board identified the farm connected with the State Reform School at Westborough as ideal for this purpose. The State Reform School had (approximately 285 acres) to provide milk, vegetables, and other agricultural products, as well as healthful employment for its inmates. However, the trustees of the Reform School, while excellent in overseeing the school, often lacked expertise in agriculture, and managing the farm had become a hindrance to their primary duties.
Recognizing the mutual benefits, a joint committee from the Board of Agriculture and the Trustees of the State Reform School petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature for an act to transfer the farm's management to the Board of Agriculture. Their petition highlighted the Board of Agriculture's composition of "men of science and men of practical skill in agriculture" and the availability of a "competent, faithful and zealous Secretary, well skilled both in the theory and practice of agriculture."
Legislative authorization and transfer
On February 27, 1854, the Massachusetts Legislature passed an act authorizing the Trustees of the State Reform School to place all or part of the Westborough lands under the charge of the State Board of Agriculture for a term not exceeding ten years. The act also granted an appropriation of up to six thousand dollars for permanent improvements, agricultural experiments, and ordinary expenses of the farm for the current year.
Following the act's passage, committees from both Boards met at the Westborough farm on March 24, 1854, to formalize the transfer. A contract was signed, outlining the terms of the arrangement:
Transfer of Property: The State Reform School transferred all lands and tenements (except for a portion reserved for the school's immediate use, including specific buildings like the main building, store-house, and Peters House), as well as livestock, implements, and personal property, to the Board of Agriculture.
Purpose: The agreement aimed to relieve the Reform School Trustees of agricultural management, provide an experimental farm for the Board of Agriculture, and offer greater facilities for the employment and instruction of Reform School inmates in agriculture and horticulture, aligning with the vision of the institution's founder, General Theodore Lyman.
Operational Agreement:
The Board of Agriculture would manage all farming operations, including teaming and transportation for the school (except persons), furnishing milk, vegetables, and other farm products to the school, providing water via an engine, performing grinding and sawing, and supplying competent overseers and instructors for the boys working on the farm.
The State Reform School would furnish boys to work on the farm as required, and provide offal from the institution to the Board of Agriculture.
Financial Terms: Both Boards would keep accurate accounts, with annual adjustments and cash payments. The Reform School would charge for offal and for each boy's labor (ten cents per six-hour day). The Board of Agriculture would charge for services like water pumping, grinding, sawing, teaming, and agricultural products supplied to the school.
Duration and Modification: The arrangement was set for a term of five years, starting April 1, 1854, subject to modifications by mutual agreement or annulment by the legislature.
Farm management and early operations
At a meeting on April 11, 1854, the Board of Agriculture formally accepted the legislative act and approved the contract. They adopted a series of By-Laws to govern the farm:
Superintending Committee: An eight-member Superintending Committee, including the secretary, was to be elected annually. Their duty was to meet monthly at the farm, make arrangements, and give directions to the farmer. They were also responsible for reporting their doings quarterly to the board. This committee could form subcommittees, which would keep detailed records of cultivation, draining, manuring, crop yields, and experimental results.
Secretary's Role: The secretary was tasked with notifying members of meetings, calling committees, keeping a journal of proceedings, handling correspondence, and preparing documents related to the farm's financial concerns.
Farmer's Responsibilities: The Superintending Committee would appoint a farmer responsible for all farming operations, general improvements, and stock purchases as directed. The farmer would also manage adult help, coordinate daily work assignments for the boys with the Reform School Superintendent, oversee the boys on the farm, and ensure strict observance of discipline rules. The farmer was also responsible for transportation of supplies for the school and keeping accurate financial accounts and labor records.
Financial Oversight: A finance committee of three persons would approve drafts and bills for payment. An Audit Committee of three persons would examine and audit accounts annually.
Notable members appointed to the first Superintending Committee included M. P. Wilder, B. V. French, Simon Brown, Moses Newell, H. W. Clapp, J. A. Nash, John Brooks, and Seth Sprague. Subcommittees were formed for general improvements, farm arrangements, plans, stock, crops/fertilizers, and labor.
The initial year of operation (1854) faced challenges due to the late start in the season, which significantly advanced before plans could be fully implemented. The primary focus remained on meeting the needs of the Reform School for produce. The Board explicitly stated they had no intention of creating a "model farm," but rather aimed for practical cultivation with a portion dedicated to carefully conducted experiments to answer specific agricultural questions. Due to the unknown character of the soil and previous treatment, and the compressed work schedule, only a few experiments could be undertaken in the first year.
Challenges and future plans
Early reports indicated that the farm, despite its initial promise, faced geographical and structural limitations. The "ill-shapen" layout and the barn's inconvenient location, far from the center of the farm, led to significant expense in hauling manure, hay, and driving cattle. This prompted the Superintending Committee to recommend the immediate purchase of adjoining land to improve the farm's shape, bring more tillage land closer to the barn, and increase resources to meet the growing demands of the Reform School (which was expanding to accommodate 550-600 inmates). The committee also noted the inadequacy of existing farm buildings, including the farm house, which necessitated boarding out workmen.
Detailed observations on the farm's stock revealed insights into dairy practices, including average weight loss in cows between evening and morning weightings, and daily milk production relative to cow weight and days after calving. These early data points foreshadowed the Board's commitment to scientific inquiry and data collection in their agricultural experiments.
In 1855, the agreement was modified to specify that 150 boys would be employed on the farm each workday during the season. In the first couple of years of the management of the farm the boys were primarily used for permanent improvements to the farm, that were desperately needed. By 1857 200 boys a day was employed on the farm and they were instructed in the details of practical farming.[18][19]
A "Stone Elevator", used for lifting and moving heavy rocks on the farm
The daily work of the boys would include removing stones, building stone walls, trenching the gardens and hauling coal from the train station in the village of Westborough. In 1855, a large reservoir was required for the waste disposal of the institution. Periodically this reservoir would be drained and the solids would be removed and made into liquid fertilizer to be spread on the hay field. Over the five years, the boys would be involved in creating gravel walkways, setting apple and pear trees as well as the daily chores in the operations of the gardens and livestock.
During this period, the Department of Agriculture paid for and built a, combination piggery, slaughterhouse and store house; a granary and sheds. The piggery gained negative attention in the farming community for its perceived extravagance expense.[21]
Over the five-years the Board of Agriculture had management, the capacity of the farm was increased considerably. Produce, milk, pork and beef output were all increased with a recommendation of purchasing additional dairy cattle. It was found, however, that over this five-years the expenses of running the farm were greater than would be considered normal for a regular farm because of the use and instruction of child labor.[22] In 1864 the farm was declared, by the Board of State Charities, to be too large to be profitable and always was a financial burden to the institution.[23][note 3]
Hereford cow "Milton"
The Hereford cow “Milton,” owned by the State, and kept at the State Farm, at Westborough. This is, probably, the best animal of this breed in the country. She received the first prize of one hundred dollars at the exhibition of the National Agricultural Society, in Boston, in October, 1855, being at that time just five years old. She was bred in England, and imported by Mr. Dowley, of Vermont, in 1852. The calf by her side, “Cronkill II,” sired by “Cronkill,” which also received a first prize of one hundred dollars at the National Exhibition, at Boston, is now three months old.[24]
The Westborough Experimental Farm represented a pioneering effort in Massachusetts to apply scientific methods to agriculture and integrate vocational training for a vulnerable population. Its operations aimed to provide practical benefits to both the Reform School and the broader farming community, laying groundwork for future agricultural research initiatives in the state.
Mortality and legacy: the reform school cemetery, 1858–1884
The Reform School Cemetery was established in 1858, primarily serving as the final resting place for boys who died while in state custody and whose remains were not claimed by their parents or relatives. The cemetery was officially laid out and graded, with a receiving tomb constructed and a gravel walk encircling the lot. This burial ground was actively used from 1858 until 1884.[25]
The 1859 fire: crisis and reassessment
Saturday morning August 13 marks a significant date in the history of the Westborough Reform School, a pivotal institution for juvenile offenders in Massachusetts. On this day, in a devastating act of arson, a substantial portion of the school was destroyed by fire with 572 boys present.[26]
The fire, ignited by a boy named Daniel Credan, who had previously assaulted an officer, began in a wooden ventilating flue in the northeastern part of the building. The strong draft quickly carried the flames to the main flue, and from there, to the dry woodwork of the roof. The fire spread with alarming speed, ultimately consuming approximately three-fourths of the structure.
Despite the rapid escalation, the diligent efforts of the school's officers, the boys themselves, and fire departments from neighboring towns managed to save the towers, the west wing, and a section of the workshops. Most of the furniture was also salvaged with minimal damage. The total loss from the fire was estimated to be no more than $50,000.
In the immediate aftermath, 240 of the displaced boys were transferred to the new jail in Fitchburg, while 26 of the less trustworthy individuals were sent to Concord Jail. The remaining 300 boys were temporarily housed in the dormitory that had been spared from the flames.
Following extensive deliberation and consultation with the governor Nathaniel P. Banks, the Trustees of the Westborough Reform School decided to lease a large building in the town of Westborough to accommodate approximately 150 boys. Additionally, plans were made to roof in the standing walls of the school to house the remaining students. These repairs progressed swiftly, and within a few days, all but seven boys (who remained at Concord) were relocated either to the temporary village building or to the newly fitted rooms at the school. Daniel Credan and five of his alleged accomplices were subsequently committed for trial.
Institutional Response and Re-evaluation Post-Fire
The fire prompted the Trustees to clearly articulate the school's mission, its past achievements, and its future potential to the state government, particularly as the rebuilding effort loomed.
The Westborough Reform School was designed as an institution for the reformation of juvenile offenders committed through legal processes. It was explicitly not a prison or a house of correction in the traditional sense, nor was it primarily a place of punishment. The Act of April 9, 1847, which established the school, defined it as a "school for the instruction, employment, and reformation of juvenile offenders." While Mr. Lyman, a key figure in the school's establishment, acknowledged it as a "place of punishment," he clarified that this "punishment" was simply the "degradation of being judged 'not fit to be at large.'" Unlike prison convicts who face explicit punishment as a warning to themselves and others, boys sent to Westborough were "conditionally forgiven." Their committal was seen as an opportunity for training and guidance toward a "straight path." Privileges at the school were earned through reform, and upon proving themselves thoroughly reformed, boys were released "without stigma and without disgrace." Only if a boy proved "incorrigible" was he then subjected to the punishment of being sent to prison.
Since its opening in 1848, the Westborough Reform School had committed 2,537 boys. At the time of the narrative, there were 507 inmates. A "laborious investigation" into the histories of 1,988 former inmates (excluding those deceased or untraceable) revealed significant insights. Of this group, 281 (14.17%) were deemed to have "turned out badly," while a remarkable 1,372 (69%) were known to have done well. The Trustees noted that in all cases of doubt, the doubt was resolved against the institution, suggesting the true success rate might be even higher. Based on a more common calculation method for the 1,653 cases thoroughly investigated, 83% were reformed, and 17% turned out badly. Only 43 former inmates (1.67% of all committals) had subsequently been in the Massachusetts State Prison, a figure reduced to 1.25% when accounting for those remanded to the house of correction after probation.
An analysis of the reasons for commitment showed that approximately 40% were for theft, 43% for "stubbornness," and 14% for assault, vagrancy, disorderly conduct, and malicious mischief. A detailed breakdown of 234 "stubbornness" cases revealed underlying behaviors such as being ungovernable and runaway (truancy, rebellion at home), ungovernable and lying, ungovernable and violent, ungovernable and a thief, and various forms of vagrancy and disorderly conduct. The Trustees acknowledged that a small percentage of boys (around 7% of "stubbornness" cases, or 3% of total committals) might not have been suitable for the institution, particularly those with low intellect or no clear grounds for commitment. However, with the Act of April 3, 1859, magistrates were now required to send a "statement" with each committal, reducing the likelihood of admitting boys who were not truly "juvenile offenders."
Government response and legislative recommendations
In September 1859, then Governor Nathaniel P. Banks, address the Speaker of the House of Representatives on the destruction of the Westborough Reform School. The governor recommended that the remaining structure should be repaired to accommodate no more than 200 boys and that the family cottage system should be implemented. Additionally a Nautical Branch should be created for the older boys to instruct them in the duties of being seaman. The legislature formed a committee chaired by Martin Brimmer of Boston to take up the matter and on October 12, 1859, the committee's report was forwarded endorsing the governor's position[note 4]
In the months after the fire little changed in the day-to-day operations of the institution. The farm recently being transferred back to the board of trustees provided work for a good number of boys during the summer months. Two contracts were signed, one for chair seating and one for shoe making allowing for productive work to continue in the workshops. During this time the Sunday school services were held at the Town Hall in Westborough due to the extensive damage to the chapel. Most of the services were conducted by clergy and devoted women in the town of Westborough for the boys of the main building as well as the nursery.
Reimagining reform: the cottage system (1860–1872)
State Reform School as seen 1860–77
With the destruction of three-quarters of the building by fire in 1859, the legislature had the task of deciding what to do with the reform school. With the recommendations of the governor and of a committee formed, the legislature in 1860 appropriated money to build 3 houses and make renovations to the remaining structure as deemed necessary for a new classification system (Resolves 1860, chapters 48 and 128). Additionally, some laws were added to address better governance of the institution as requested by the Trustees.
The primary objectives of this rebuilding phase were multifaceted, focusing on expanding housing capacity, improving infrastructure, and implementing a new "classified system" for the boys.
Expanded Housing: To address immediate lodging needs, especially with the lease of the village mill (housing 150 boys) expiring in August, work commenced swiftly on two detached farmhouses. The "farm house" was completed and occupied, and another brick Peter’s house, strategically located on the northeast corner of the ruins, was nearing completion. The "Peters house," though authorized for renovation, remained untouched due to it not being needed and its unsuitability.
Chapel Reconstruction: The chapel was entirely rebuilt and now included a correctional department beneath it, featuring fourteen cells and a workshop.[27]
Safety and System Integration: Significant efforts were made to enhance safety and adapt the main building to the new classified system. This included the installation of parapet fire walls and iron-cased doors throughout the main structure, along with additional apparatus to ensure a reliable water supply. Plans for integrating the classified system into the main building had already been drawn, indicating a forward-thinking approach to the institution's future operation.
Family cottages
Dining room in "Peter House" (1871)
The progressive thought of juvenile Reform, in England, in the 1830s was to place 1 to 3 dozen inmates with similar characteristics in separate small houses under the supervision of a surrogate father or mother. The "family" thus created was to work, live, and attend school together, mixing only rarely with the inmates placed in other families. This was a radical departure from "congregate system" that the State Reform School for boys was founded on.
The congregate system is a prison-like facility for housing delinquents in large dormitory areas, bringing them together under strict routines in classrooms, workshops, cafeterias and recreational areas. The main disadvantage of the congregate system is the older, more vicious boys are housed with the younger, more impressionable boys. This disadvantage is overcome with the cottage system.[note 5]
In the late 1830s, the Colonie de Mettray in France was built on the cottage system.
School room in "Garden House" (1871)Garden House Dining Room
In the United States, the cottage system was slow to catch on because of the greater expense of land, buildings, and services required, and the supposed increase difficulty of control of the inmates. Eventually, it was introduced with the opening of the Industrial School for Girls in Lancaster Massachusetts (1854)[note 6] and the Ohio Reform School (1857) which was modeled after the Colonie de Mettray.[28]
By an act of the legislature in 1860, three Trust Houses were to be constructed on the school grounds at Westborough. One would be named the "Farmhouse" the second the "Peter's House" and the third would be named the "Garden House". The farmhouse was an existing structure pre-dating the reform school. It would be renovated to house 30 boys, a master and matron.[note 7] The Peter's house was also an existing structure pre-dating the reform school. It was the home of the original owner of the property. It to was renovated to house 30 boys, a master and a matron. The garden house was a new building built on the ruins of the reform school section destroyed by fire. This was a brick structure intended to house 30 boys with a master and matron.
After the first year of the trial, the trustees were so convinced of the benefits of the cottage system that they recommended to the legislature that two more homes be built and the number of boys housed in each be reduced to 20.[29]
The trust houses would remain as the central focus of reforming the younger boys throughout the remaining years of the institution. When the Reform School for Boys closed in 1884 the newly formed Lyman School for Boys was recreated under the cottage system.
New governance for the cottage system
The new system would have all boys, upon committal to the reform school, housed in the old building. Using a credit system for good behavior a boy could earn his way into one of the trust houses. In this way boys that were good candidates for reforming, in a family setting, were transferred to the trust houses and the older more harden boys were kept in the older building and separated according to class.
The legislature also passed a law that year reducing the maximum commitment age from 16 to 14 years old. This was in keeping with the general thought that boys over the age of 14 were less likely to be reformed. They also abolishment of the alternative sentence. The alternative sentence was handed down by the judge at the time of sentencing and was designed to specify a sentence to prison if the boy was incorrigible at the reform school. In practice, however, it was found that in most cases the alternative sentence to prison was of a lesser duration than the reform school, sometimes amounting to only days. Because of this, some boys would act out at the reform school hoping for their alternative sentence to be enacted and for their sentence to be carried out in prison for a few days or weeks instead of the sentence to the reform school throughout their childhood.
Also enacted was an order that every sentence, to the reform school would be until the age of 18; previously it was 21. At the time, it was thought that the reform process should take upwards to 4 years to thoroughly educate the boys in character, schooling, industry, and labor. Additionally the power to commit inmates was restricted to judges of the Superior and probate courts, and all boys should have legal representation in court provided by the state. It was thought that by limiting the number of judges able to commit boys to the state reform school the number of boys committed for minor offenses would be reduced.
In 1864, the legislature created an agency which they named the Board of State Charities. Its purpose was to make recommendations regarding the management of all of the State prisons, Reform Schools and Almshouses in the State. It was also charged with coordinating transfers between institutions and also managing the indenture of youth in the system. In 1866 and Visiting Agency was incorporated into the Board of State Charities to follow up and visit the indentured. Prior to the establishment of the Visiting Agency, very little information was gathered and kept on those indentured. The children indentured from the State Reform School from 1848 to 1863 was 1283.[note 8] Approximately half of that number, the master never wrote the board of trustees as to the well-being of their apprentice as required by their contract.[30] It was hoped that the Visiting Agent could keep tabs on the indentured children and follow their progress.
The Nautical Experiment: Seafaring as Reform (1860–1872)
Reform school ship MassachusettsOn board the school ship Massachusetts
The Nautical Branch was a foundational component of the institution's educational and vocational training, specifically designed to prepare young boys for a life at sea. Its primary aim was to impart practical seafaring skills and a basic academic education, though its operational methods and effectiveness were subjects of ongoing discussion and evaluation.[31]
Establishment of the School Ship Massachusetts
The concept of a Nautical Reform School gained legislative traction in Massachusetts during an extra session in 1859. Following a fire at the Reform School at Westborough, Governor Banks, in his message of September 9th, 1859, advocated for the establishment of a School Ship. This recommendation capitalized on a favorable political climate, as previous attempts in 1856 and later had failed. The joint committee tasked with the matter, notably influenced by a report penned by Hon. Martin Brimmer of Boston on October 12, 1859, enthusiastically supported the measure.
The committee envisioned obtaining an old ship to accommodate 150 boys. The proposed discipline would emulate that of a "well-ordered man-of-war." Beyond seamanship, boys would receive instruction in practical life skills, such as making and mending clothes and shoes, preparing food, and covering ordinary branches of education, with navigation taught "as far as possible."
The legislation, which authorized the purchase of a vessel, was approved by the governor on October 28, 1859. This established the School Ship Massachusetts, though it was considered entirely distinct from the Westborough institution, save for provisions regarding pupil transfers. Soon after the commissioners purchased a schooner the Wave and on June 5, 1860, dedicated both as the nautical branch of the state reform school. In 1861, the Massachusetts was fitted out with four guns and was used as a guard ship for merchant vessels in Boston Harbor. In 1862 the Wave was declared useless and was sold.
In 1865, it was found necessary to acquire another ship, the Massachusetts being found inadequate to accommodate all the boys available. The trustees were authorized to purchase a second ship larger in size than the Massachusetts. Once purchased this ship was named the George M. Barnard and was commissioned in February 1866. In that same year the Massachusetts was permanently moved to New Bedford where it would remain.
Governance and merchant involvement
The governance of the Nautical Branch was unique, as outlined in Chapter 76 of the Revised Statutes. A board of five Trustees was established, with their appointment method designed to foster strong merchant interest in the enterprise. While the governor appointed one trustee annually for a three-year term, the Boston Board of Trade and the Boston Marine Society each annually appointed one trustee for a one-year term, subject to the governor's approval. This structure aimed to invite aid from merchants and shipmasters in both the placement of boys and the overall management of the school.
Unlike Westborough, the Trustees of the Nautical Branch were empowered to discharge boys without requiring shipmasters to provide security for their well-being or conduct. This was likely intended to facilitate the easier shipping of boys, though it was identified as a "defect in the system" that ideally needed to be remedied. The legal provision stated that Trustees could send any boy on a voyage at sea and enter into necessary contracts, which would act as a discharge from the institution.
Financial projections and realities
The legislative committee's initial estimates for the Nautical Reform School were optimistic. They projected that while annual maintenance costs would be comparable to a land-based reform school, the initial setup would be significantly cheaper. A suitable 600-ton ship was estimated to cost $15,000 to procure and fit up. Additionally, a small, square-rigged tender for sea exercises was estimated at less than $5,000.
The estimated annual operating costs for 150 boys totaled $18,098, breaking down as follows:
Salaries: $6,132 (Captain, First and Second Officers, five Petty Officers, two Seamen, Captain and Teacher)
Provisions, Clothing, Fuel, and Lights: $9,750 (at $1.25 per week per boy)
Repairs of Ship and Tender: $1,200
Board of Officers: $416
Incidental Expenses: $600
Adding 50 additional boys at $65 per year would bring the total to $21,348. The committee believed their officer numbers and pay estimates were "large" and "ample," and their cost of supplies was "fully sufficient."
However, actual costs significantly exceeded these initial projections. From July 1st, 1860, to the time of the report, current expenses totaled $97,654.24. The average weekly cost per boy was $3.42 (without interest) or $3.715 (with interest), far surpassing the estimated $2.32 per week. This discrepancy meant the State had spent over $25,000 more than estimated in the school's brief operation, suggesting that supporting boys on board ship was inherently more expensive than on shore. There was hope that if pupils could earn something towards their own support, costs might be reduced.
It is believed that the School Ship Massachusetts was the only one of the State institutions insured against injury by fire or water, with the cost of insurance being a "heavy" expense, the necessity of which was questioned.
Comparative financial data highlighted the differences in expenditure between the School Ship and the Westborough School:
School Name
Total Cost in Construction
Total Cost in Current Expenses
No. of Years
Yearly Average Cost
Westborough School
$198,000.00
$528,264.70
15.9
$33,224.19
School Ship
$36,580.31
$94,939.76
4.25
$22,338.76
Shipboard life, education, and challenges
The Massachusetts was intended to accommodate 150 boys, though discussions arose about acquiring a larger vessel to serve more boys, as it was recognized that the demand for such a school exceeded its current capacity. The General Court in 1864 appropriated $20,000, along with a $5,000 donation from a Boston merchant, Mr. Barnard, to either purchase an additional vessel or exchange the Massachusetts for a larger one, aiming to accommodate 90 more boys. However, this expansion had not yet materialized, and there was no immediate prospect of increasing the number of boys received.
Life on board was structured, with boys divided into two watches, alternating daily between duty on deck and study in the schoolroom. While one watch was in school, the other engaged in practical skills essential for sailors, such as making and mending clothing, repairing shoes, mending sails, and fitting rigging. Changes were made to improve arrangements, including the replacement of berths with hammocks, which also provided additional employment for the boys and facilitated cleaning. Concerns about ventilation were addressed with the introduction of a wind-sail.
Each boy received 36 hours of book instruction every fortnight, or an average of two and a half hours daily, over five days a fortnight. The school offered classes in Arithmetic, Geography, and Navigation, alongside Reading, Spelling, and Writing. While the teacher was noted for spirit and ability, the general nature of the instruction, combined with the short average time boys spent on board (nine months and twenty days, or approximately 525 schoolroom hours), meant that the school could primarily offer a "taste" of these studies. Many newcomers often had neglected educational backgrounds, further limiting progress.
The Trustees believed that extended confinement on board made boys "fretful and discontented," not better sailors. They suggested that if mechanical employment were introduced, a longer stay of a year might be feasible, provided there was sufficient space.
The law regarding the age of admission to the Nautical Branch underwent several changes. Initially, any boy under sixteen could be sent. This led to a significant number of very young boys, with 13 boys aged twelve and under in 1861, and 37 in 1862. In 1863, the law was modified to forbid sending boys under fourteen and set an upper limit of eighteen years. This change increased the average age of boys admitted from 13.7 in 1862 to 14.5 in 1863. However, the law was again modified, allowing boys as young as twelve to be sent, though the average age remained higher at 14.76 years.
Despite this, the Trustees and officers deemed it inexpedient to admit boys under fourteen, citing reasons outlined in annual reports. There were also doubts about admitting boys over sixteen, particularly if the total number increased, due to concerns about older boys combining to overpower officers (an attempt that had previously occurred) and the potential negative influence they might have on younger lads.
Discipline on board was generally strict, with orders given by the second and third mates, and occasionally the captain or first mate. While the work was not considered overly hard, and there was no evidence of undue severity, boys were taught all appropriate seafaring duties for their age. Their proficiency in rowing was demonstrated by a crew making a notable twenty-mile pull on August 12th. The Massachusetts also served as a Coast Guard vessel for a period in 1861 and annually made trips to various parts of the state for navigation practice.
Public debate and closure
The expediency of continuing the Nautical School was a subject of a hearing before the Committee on Public Charitable Institutions.
Supporters' Views: Some trustees, notably Judge Russell, who had diligently worked for the school's welfare, believed it had been a "highly useful agency." However, even they conceded that the time had come for "other instrumentalities" to serve as well, or better. They admitted that the school's character had changed significantly due to the Visiting Agency's operation, which placed the "better class of boys" into families. Their places on the ship were then filled by "older and more confirmed in vice." This "placing out" system also reduced the school's numbers, making it feasible to accommodate a large portion of the remaining inmates at the State Reform School at Westborough.
Opponents' Views (Reluctant): Other trustees, while not actively opposing the closure, expressed regret, believing the Nautical School's methods were uniquely suited to a certain class of boys and that it also provided recruits for the mercantile marine.
Secretary of the Board's Suggestion: The Secretary of the Board, while favoring the proposed abolition, suggested that a new reformatory be established contemporaneously for older boys, which could also house young men currently committed to county prisons. Rainsford Island, if still state-owned, was proposed as a potential site. The Secretary also voiced concerns that transferring boys from the school ship to the Westborough school would "embarrass the latter" and necessitate "greater surveillance in its administration." These fears, the report noted, "proved to be not without foundation."
Despite some reservations, the committee, after considering all aspects, concluded that the experiment of closing the Nautical School and transferring its inmates was "worth the trial." They subsequently reported a bill for the school's abolition, which passed both branches of the legislature without opposition, leading to the eventual closure and sale of the school ship.
The legislature in 1870 ordered the discontinuance of one school ship and in 1872 ordered that the nautical school be discontinued entirely.[34][35][36][37]
The State of New York followed Massachusetts in 1869 with a similar experiment, with the purchase of the school ship Mercury.[note 11]
Crisis, scrutiny, and transformation (1873–1884)
As a result, of the abolishment of the Nautical Branch, it was necessary to find a place to house not only those older boys that had been previously on the school ships but also future commitments of boys of that class.
Despite the recommendations of the board of trustees and the superintendent, in 1870, the legislature once again changed the minimum age of commitment at the reform school from 14 to 17 allowing for the older class of boys to be committed there. Also that year, the legislature pass provisions allowing the visiting agent to work with the courts to identify suitable boys to indenture directly from the courts without being committed to the reform school first. This would lessen the amount of younger boys committed to the reform school while making additional room for the older incorrigible boys. As a consequence of these two legislative acts there were not enough young qualified boys committed, to fill the trust houses and the quantity of older incorrigible boys increased.
The evolving inmate population
Work for the older boys changed as well. They could not be trusted to work on the farm, without escaping, so their only means of labor was in the workshop seating chairs. The trustees thought these boys should be taught some industrial trades, but the legislature failed to appropriate money to build additional workshops, buy the machinery and hire overseers necessary to implement it. What occurred, because of these changes, was a total change in the character of the institution. It went from a place of reformation for young offenders to a place for housing older incorrigible offenders with a building and officers who were ill-equipped to deal with it. With the abolishment of the nautical branch, the trustees and superintendent sought relief from the legislature, asking that the older boys be sent elsewhere or money appropriated to build an addition to house and segregate the incorrigible ones. The legislature responded with small Appropriations enough to make minor Improvement in the security of the existing building.
The boys organizations and activities
Throughout the 1870s, a number of organizations were established to benefit the boys with good conduct. One of these was the "Tried and True" class. In order to be a member, a boy would have to be voted in, based upon his overall good conduct over a period of time. The members would wear nickel-plated badges with the words tried-and-true and had privileges such as visiting neighboring villages unattended. During this time, the "Band of Hope" was formed complete with uniforms and instruments in which the boys would play at the school and in parades in the area villages. Two Baseball clubs were organized and uniforms were provided. One of the teams called the "Lyman", visiting several places in the state and playing with other clubs. A "Fire Company" was formed and uniforms were given to the boys who were admitted. The fire company would respond to alarms of fires outside of the institution's grounds. The fire company along with their horse-drawn, hand pumper, fire engine built by Hunneman Co of Boston would test their engine with the fire department in Westborough.[note 12] A military company called "Lyman Cadets" was formed, composed of 60 boys completely furnished with uniforms, Springfield Rifles, a full set of accouterments and drilled in accordance with the Upton's tactics. They would march in local parades and were seen at local fairs throughout the state.[38][39]
Downsizing and staffing adjustments
By 1880, there was a decrease in commitments by the courts, and an effort was made by the board of trustees for the boys' prompt release once they reach the Honor System. This began to decrease the number of boys house at the institution, and as a result sections of the institution were closed. The salaries of those employed were reduced and duties were consolidated in order to reduce the number of staff employed. By 1882, all boys and officers were removed from the new addition, built 5 years prior, and placed in the old building. In 1883, various committees visited the Institution to determine the best way to move forward with the reform school and to use the unoccupied buildings.
c. 1877 Lawn and Flower Garden
Improvements and facilities
During this period a new coal shed located at the "State Farm Station" 100 feet long and 24 feet wide, allowing for the storage of coal from the railroad.[note 13] This allowed coal to be stored and hauled 3/4 mile in Northborough rather than being 2.5 miles from Westborough.[41] In 1878, the first telegraph wire was erected from the institution to the office of Samuel M Griggs near the railroad depot in the center of Westborough.[42][note 14]
Riot and judicial inquiry 1877
The 1877 riot
On January 12, 1877 in the reformatory department, after eating supper and while still in the dining room, one of the inmates threw a bowl at a teacher and hit him in the head, creating an ugly cut that bled profusely. Other boys joined in and before it was over, 97 bowls were thrown at officers. The boys all rushed into the yard, where they were soon collected, and the officers took them to the schoolrooms. The boys who had plotted the riot grabbed ice skates and attacked the officers in schoolrooms. At the same time, other boys turned off the gas lights, and in the darkness the officers escaped out the door. The boys then barricaded the doors and proceeded to use settees as battering rams on the barred windows. They destroyed all the desks and other furniture in the classrooms and were able to gain access to the roof. The superintendent summoned Edwin B. Harvey, a trustee from Westborough, and informed him of the riot and asked that he immediately ride over. The superintendent and the officers gathered a fire hose and sprayed water through any windows that the boys were throwing furniture out of. They also subdued the boys that had made their way to the roof in hopes of escape by spraying water on them as well. When Mr. Harvey arrived at the institution the riot was still in progress and the superintendent asked him to go to the Village of Westborough and gather men to help put down the uprising. After an hour, the trustee came back with 12 able men and they organized and dragged two fire hoses up the stairs and gained access to the schoolrooms. Once in the schoolroom they were able to subdue all the boys by spraying them with water.[43][44]
It was determined over the course of several days that 15 inmates were the main leaders of the riot. The following week these 15 inmates were transferred to Superior Court in Worcester to stand trial. Thirteen of these boys were convicted and sentenced to various terms in the House of Correction.
Legislative inquiry and reform
Soon after the riot, several articles appeared in area newspapers, fueled by the disgruntled officer and inmates, detailing the riot and alleged abuses against the boys at the reform school.[45] In March of that year, a committee was formed in the legislature to look into allegations of mismanagement and abusive at the reform school. The committee called as witnesses trustees, superintendents, and inmates of the institution. The committee focused on the allegations of abuse through the use of various forms of corporal punishment.
Whipping upon the bare back of the boys by the officers with leather straps made in the shoe shop was a frequently used measure. Boys were held in the basement of the chapel in cells, where they were kept for days or even weeks with only rations of bread and water to eat and a cot to sleep on. There were two other forms of restraint that were called the straitjacket and the sweatbox. The straitjacket was made of leather with an attached gag to be put in the boy's mouth and the boy would be laid down until it was time to go to bed. If he did not submit, the treatment would be continued the next day. The sweatbox was a wooden box made in the woodworking shop that stood about six and a half feet tall and was just wide enough for a person to stand upright without being able to move. They would put an inmate in the box, standing up with their arms by their side with slits in the box in front of their faces to allow air to enter for breathing. They would stand in there unable to move until the end of the day. Spraying cold water from the fire hose on a boy was used as a way subdue him and hopefully modify his behavior.[46]
The results of the investigation by this committee were submitted to the legislature in a 900-page report on May 7. Based on this report, the legislature authorized the governor to appoint a new board of trustees, and they enacted laws regulating the use of corporal punishment in the reform school.
State Reform School 1877–84
Continued expansion amidst challenges: 1877 enlargement
In 1875 the legislature passed an appropriation of $90,000 for an addition to the school as a Correctional Department. The addition was built mainly upon the foundations of the part burned in 1859, though the arrangement of the rooms differs greatly.
Plans and estimates were presented by Messrs. Cutting and Holman of Worcester; and these plans, after careful study by the Trustees, were submitted to a committee of the council, and, meeting with their approval, the work was started in August of 1875.
The work was done by divided contract, proposals requested for the different parts, the brick-work, the lumber, the stone and the iron. A large number of the inmates were selected for this outside work. Some for excavating the foundations, some for assisting the masons, others to help in the moving of the Garden House built some 17 years earlier. The removal of the Garden House was necessary because it stood upon ground to be occupied by the enlargement, and could not readily be made a part of it.
When completed, the addition would have two large schoolrooms, sleeping halls and a dining room for about 200 boys. It would also have workshops, cells for solitary confinement, a hospital and room for the officers. Once the new addition was completed and occupied in April 1877 a series of mechanical trades were introduced including sleigh making, blacksmithing, painting, and woodworking, including making handcarts, wheelbarrows and hand sleds. With this new addition, the older incorrigible boys were able to be completely segregated from the other boys. They had separate school-rooms, separate dining-rooms, sleeping rooms, and workshops, and their playground was separated from the reformatory department boys by a building two stories high and thirty-eight feet wide. They will only see the reformatory department boys on the Sabbath in the chapel, when the reformatory department boys occupy the gallery, the correctional department boys the floor.
With this new addition the trustees created the reformatory branch (old building), correctional branch (new addition), trust branch (3 trust houses) and hospital branch (both hospitals).
In 1879 the trustees thought it wise to renamed the correctional department to the Industrial department. The term "Industrial department" would be used throughout the state institutions.
Originally the buildings at Bridgewater were occupied as a State Almshouse from (1854–1872); but the need of classifying the State poor led to the establishment of a State Workhouse in 1866–1887.
Proposed Conversion of State Reform School into a Homeopathic insane hospital (1883)
The movement for a state homoeopathic hospital for the insane originated within the homoeopathic medical societies. Dr. Samuel Worcester of Salem, who had served as an assistant physician at Butler Hospital in Providence from 1867 to 1869, is credited with being the first to publicly propose the acquisition of such a state institution during a meeting. While the entire homoeopathic profession supported this endeavor, the leading figure in this, as in many other successful homoeopathic initiatives, was Dr. I. Tisdale Talbot of Boston. Initial efforts by Dr. Talbot and his associates to secure legislative approval for a new location and construct new buildings proved unsuccessful. However, a potential opportunity arose from an unexpected quarter. Attention soon turned to the State Reform School at Westborough leading to discussions about its potential conversion or transfer.
In his 1883 report to the State Board of Health, Lunacy and Charity, Mr. F. B. Sanborn, then Inspector of Charities, made a crucial recommendation: "The State should make provision at Westborough or elsewhere for the reception and treatment of at least 300 of the chronic insane who now crowd our hospitals."
Dr. Talbot and his colleagues in the State Society immediately recognized the strategic value of Sanborn's recommendation and its influential source. They swiftly petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature (General Court) for a grant of the Westborough property for their use. Crucially, they agreed to accept the "old and unsuitable institution" and committed to the formidable task of transforming its buildings from a "prison into a hospital."
Mr. Sanborn continued to advocate for the use of the Westborough facility as an asylum, particularly for the chronic insane. The homoeopathic community, however, opposed the limitation of patients solely to those deemed incurable. They sought equality with other state institutions and petitioned for a comprehensive hospital where patients from any part of the state, suffering from any form of mental disorder, could receive their preferred medical treatment.[47]
Proposed relocation of the State Reform School to Lancaster (1884)
Industrial School for Girls at Lancaster 1871
A popular suggestion was to relocate the younger boys from the reform school in Westborough, to the State-owned farm and buildings of the Industrial School for Girls in Lancaster built in 1859 which does not fill the buildings. By transferring the girls in Lancaster to Monson or elsewhere, the Lancaster buildings could at once be occupied by the younger boys now at Westborough, who could be employed, as soon as spring opens, in cultivating the farm there. The number of such boys would be less than one hundred, and they could be lodged in the four family houses now standing at Lancaster. For one family of these boys the present workshop at Lancaster could be used; and two other detached workshops in convenient localities could be fitted up, in buildings now standing, for a small sum. The Lancaster buildings already contain school-rooms, dining rooms, a chapel, etc., large enough for the boys who should be sent there. If it should be found necessary hereafter to extend the Lancaster buildings so as to receive more than one hundred boys of the age suitable for a reform school, there is enough land for any reasonable extension, and for the farm and garden work of the pupils, even should their number reach two hundred. The plan aimed to reduce expenses, optimize existing state properties, and improve the segregation of younger and older inmates within the state's reformatory system.[48]
Proposed Relocation of State Reform School (1885)
The governor and trustees thought it would be economical to rebuild on remaining land, or to purchase other land adjoining the state reform school.[49]
Relocation and the Establishment of the Lyman School (1884)
Lyman School for Boys as seen in 1888.
On June 3, 1884, through Chapter 322 of the Acts, the Massachusetts Legislature formally established a state hospital for the care and treatment of the insane in Westborough. This new institution was unique in its mandate to operate upon the principles of homeopathic medicine. The act specifically directed that the existing buildings of the State Reform School, which had occupied the site for decades, should be remodeled and repurposed to accommodate 325 patients for the new hospital.
The board of trustees for this new hospital was appointed during the summer of 1884, holding their inaugural meeting on August 5th. However, it was not until September 9th that all members were officially appointed and confirmed, allowing them to fully commence their duties.
Amidst the plans for the new hospital, a significant change occurred for the reform school itself. On September 31, 1884, the State Reform School was officially renamed the Lyman School for Boys.[50] This renaming was a symbolic shift, perhaps anticipating its eventual relocation and a renewed focus on its mission.
As the new hospital's trustees moved forward with their mandate, pressure mounted for the Lyman School to vacate its premises. Conferences and communications between the Hospital Trustees and the School Trustees took place on February 3rd, 10th, and 24th, and March 3rd, 1885. The Hospital Trustees emphasized the critical need for complete possession of the main building at Westborough before the first of April 1885 to properly fulfill their duties to the Commonwealth.[51]
Main Building opened 1886
This urgency spurred the School Trustees into action to find suitable alternative accommodations for the boys. On March 20, 1885, the School Trustees were authorized to "lease and prepare the land and buildings known as Willow Park" to house boys who could no longer be accommodated in the Westborough buildings. Soon after, on April 9, 1885, the Trustees were authorized to purchase the Bela J. Stone farm adjacent to Willow Park . This acquisition was intended to provide more permanent housing solutions, with a larger building planned for 30 to 40 boys (and the Superintendent's residence), and a smaller building for another family of 30 boys on 93 acres of land. These new structures were anticipated to be completed around April 1, 1886
The main building of the Lyman School, formally State Reform School, was formally vacated in April 1885.[52] This marked a significant milestone in the transfer of the property to the new hospital. Evidence of this swift transition includes the sale of school desks, which had been appraised at $5.00 each in September 1881, for a mere 25 cents each at a public auction in April 1885, with several dealers present.
With the main building cleared, reconstruction efforts for the new Westborough State Hospital commenced on May 18, 1885. Despite the main building being vacated, some boys remained on the Westborough grounds. By September 30, 1885, there were 94 boys still in trust houses. The Lyman School fully vacated the boiler house in October 1885. The farm land was officially turned over to the Trustees of the hospital in November 1885. The "Peter's trust house," along with Mr. and Mrs. Howard, relocated to the Willow House in November 1885, further consolidating the Lyman School's move.
The Lyman School for Boys: a new era in Westborough (1886)
By late 1886, the Lyman School for Boys had largely completed its relocation to a new site in Westborough, Massachusetts. This move marked a significant shift in the institution's operations and capacity, as its former buildings were simultaneously converted into the Westborough Insane Hospital.[53]
The new establishment
Situated less than a mile from its previous location, the new Lyman School occupied a smaller farm, designed to accommodate a significantly reduced number of pupils. The facility could comfortably house approximately 100 boys, a stark contrast to the larger capacity of the old buildings. During the preceding year, the pupil count rarely exceeded 100, often dropping as low as 83, with an average of about 93—the smallest number ever reported for the school.
The total cost of the new establishment was considerable, with the nearly completed buildings amounting to roughly $68,000. When combined with the price of the new farm, the aggregate cost surpassed $80,000. Approximately $10,000 of this was drawn from the Lyman Fund, a legacy from the school's founder, Theodore Lyman, which held an approximate market value of $52,000 in securities at the time.
The new farm, encompassing nearly 100 acres, was valued at $13,900 without the new structures. The valuation of the farm and buildings, excluding the unfinished chapel, stood at nearly $73,000. Once completed, the chapel was expected to increase the total valuation to over $76,000. Including personal estate valued at $25,555, the total worth of the new facility's buildings, furniture, and land approached $100,000, equating to roughly $1,000 per pupil for the 100-boy capacity. The overall market value of all funds belonging to the Lyman School was approximately $55,000, with only the income from these funds typically used for the school's annual expenses.
Financials and operations
For the year ending October 1, 1886, the actual monetary outlay for the Lyman School was $28,412. After deducting over $2,000 in earnings from labor and other sources, the net cost was approximately $26,360. Further subtracting expenditures on farm buildings and improvements, the true net cost of operating the school was around $24,000 for an average of 93 boys, translating to about $5 per week per boy. This sum was considered substantial, with expectations for future reductions through decreased outlays and increased income from student labor.
Despite the initial expenditure, the new establishment was projected to reduce the absolute cost of running the school by at least $5,000 annually compared to the old farm. This made the $75,000 investment in the new facility more economically viable for the State than continuing operations at the old site, which was estimated to be worth approximately $100,000 to the newly occupying Westborough Insane Hospital.
Impact of the relocation and reforms
The move was deemed essential, as the old establishment had become a burden on the school, ill-suited for the smaller number of pupils it had supported in recent years. A change in the age of pupils, enacted two years prior, had successfully made the school more manageable. Operations were now more strictly aligned with a "family system."
While an increase in pupil numbers was anticipated, it was expected that these younger and "less depraved" boys would be more easily placed in families, ideally keeping the average number in the school buildings at or below 100 for optimal economic results. It was also considered expedient to potentially transfer some boys from Monson,[note 16] who had been court-committed, to the Lyman School. As of October 1, the number of boys at Monson (93) exceeded those at Lyman, though Lyman's numbers had since risen to 106.
During the twelve months ending October 1, the Lyman School served a total of 170 different boys, with an average of 93. Their primary occupations included farm work and other outdoor labor, though new buildings were equipped with shops for mechanical tasks. Sixty new commitments were received during the year, alongside nearly 20 boys who had returned after previous stays. Also, 60 boys were successfully placed with families or returned to their homes. The year saw very little sickness and no deaths among the pupils.[54]
The shifting landscape of mental healthcare (c. 1900 – 1950)
By the early 20th century, a quiet revolution was beginning to stir within the often-stagnant world of mental healthcare. For generations, the primary approach to "insanity" had been largely one of institutionalization, with large asylums serving as the primary, and often only, recourse for those deemed mentally unwell. These institutions, while sometimes well-intentioned, frequently became places of custodial care rather than active treatment, and their ever-increasing size and number reflected a societal struggle to cope with mental illness.
However, a growing cohort of research workers across various disciplines – from neurology and psychology to early pharmacology – began to challenge the prevailing understanding of mental disorders. Through meticulous observation, groundbreaking experiments, and a nascent scientific methodology, these thousands of dedicated individuals started to unravel the complex biological, psychological, and social factors contributing to mental ill-health.
The burgeoning knowledge gained from this fervent research hinted at a transformative future. There was a dawning realization that "insanity" was not a singular, immutable condition, but rather a spectrum of illnesses, many of which might be amenable to intervention and even recovery. This optimistic outlook fostered a venture to hope that the relentless expansion of institutions for the insane would soon be curtailed.
The ultimate aspiration, almost visionary for its time, was that these imposing structures, with their extensive buildings and grounds, might eventually be repurposed. Instead of serving as somber, often isolated, confines for the mentally ill. This sentiment reflected a profound desire for a future where mental illness would be better understood, more effectively treated, and where the prevailing architectural symbols of its historical burden could be transformed into something more beneficial and humane for society at large.
This period marked the very beginnings of a shift from purely custodial care to a more research-driven, treatment-oriented approach, laying the groundwork for the eventual development of modern psychiatry and community-based mental health services.
Trustee's comment of 1934
"It is probable that, in the coming half-century, one form after another will yield to the knowledge gained by the thousands of research workers; and we venture to hope that the growth of institutions for the insane will be checked, and that the buildings and ground may be used for other and pleasanter purposes".[55]
The Westborough State Hospital closed in 2010.
Bird's eye view and layout of the institution
Birds eye view of the Hospital 1886Layout of the Hospital 1886
↑Martin Brimmer was the son of the 9th mayor of Boston Martin Brimmer
↑The cottage system is also known as the "family system". The individual buildings were usually referred to as cottages or houses. In Westborough the houses were referred to as "Trust Houses", with each house having its own name.
↑Believed to be the first reform school in the United States created under the cottage system.
↑Each house is under the charge of a gentleman and his wife who have control and management of the boys, subject to the general rules of the institution, and subordinate to the superintendent.
↑State Farm Station was located approximately 3/4 mile north from the institution along the Agricultural Branch Railroad in Northborough and opened in 1855. It would later be renamed the Hospital Station and later still the Talbot Station. The State Farm Station is labeled on this map as the depot.
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