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Protein production is the biotechnological process of generating a specific protein. It is typically achieved by the manipulation of gene expression in an organism such that it expresses large amounts of a recombinant gene. This includes the transcription of the recombinant DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA), the translation of mRNA into polypeptide chains, which are ultimately folded into functional proteins and may be targeted to specific subcellular or extracellular locations.
Transcription is the process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA. Some segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA molecules that can encode proteins, called messenger RNA (mRNA). Other segments of DNA are transcribed into RNA molecules called non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs).
In molecular biology and genetics, transcriptional regulation is the means by which a cell regulates the conversion of DNA to RNA (transcription), thereby orchestrating gene activity. A single gene can be regulated in a range of ways, from altering the number of copies of RNA that are transcribed, to the temporal control of when the gene is transcribed. This control allows the cell or organism to respond to a variety of intra- and extracellular signals and thus mount a response. Some examples of this include producing the mRNA that encode enzymes to adapt to a change in a food source, producing the gene products involved in cell cycle specific activities, and producing the gene products responsible for cellular differentiation in multicellular eukaryotes, as studied in evolutionary developmental biology.
Regulation of gene expression, or gene regulation, includes a wide range of mechanisms that are used by cells to increase or decrease the production of specific gene products. Sophisticated programs of gene expression are widely observed in biology, for example to trigger developmental pathways, respond to environmental stimuli, or adapt to new food sources. Virtually any step of gene expression can be modulated, from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, and to the post-translational modification of a protein. Often, one gene regulator controls another, and so on, in a gene regulatory network.
Sir George Charles Radda was a Hungarian-British chemist.
Peter John Hore is a British chemist and academic. He is a Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oxford and fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. He is the author of two Oxford Chemistry Primers on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and research articles primarily in the area of NMR, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), spin chemistry and magnetoreception during bird migration.
Bacterial transcription is the process in which a segment of bacterial DNA is copied into a newly synthesized strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) with use of the enzyme RNA polymerase.
Eukaryotic transcription is the elaborate process that eukaryotic cells use to copy genetic information stored in DNA into units of transportable complementary RNA replica. Gene transcription occurs in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Unlike prokaryotic RNA polymerase that initiates the transcription of all different types of RNA, RNA polymerase in eukaryotes comes in three variations, each translating a different type of gene. A eukaryotic cell has a nucleus that separates the processes of transcription and translation. Eukaryotic transcription occurs within the nucleus where DNA is packaged into nucleosomes and higher order chromatin structures. The complexity of the eukaryotic genome necessitates a great variety and complexity of gene expression control.
The PreQ1-I riboswitch is a cis-acting element identified in bacteria which regulates expression of genes involved in biosynthesis of the nucleoside queuosine (Q) from GTP. PreQ1 (pre-queuosine1) is an intermediate in the queuosine pathway, and preQ1 riboswitch, as a type of riboswitch, is an RNA element that binds preQ1. The preQ1 riboswitch is distinguished by its unusually small aptamer, compared to other riboswitches. Its atomic-resolution three-dimensional structure has been determined, with the PDB ID 2L1V.
MYC proto-oncogene, bHLH transcription factor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MYC gene which is a member of the Myc family of transcription factors. The protein contains basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) structural motif.
Nuclear factor NF-kappa-B p105 subunit is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NFKB1 gene.
Transcription factor JunD is a protein that in humans is encoded by the JUND gene.
Transcription initiation factor TFIID subunit 1, also known as transcription initiation factor TFIID 250 kDa subunit (TAFII-250) or TBP-associated factor 250 kDa (p250), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the TAF1 gene.
Probable ATP-dependent RNA helicase DDX5 also known as DEAD box protein 5 or RNA helicase p68 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the DDX5 gene.
Zinc finger protein Gfi-1 is a transcriptional repressor that in humans is encoded by the GFI1 gene. It is important normal hematopoiesis. Gfi1 is a transcriptional repressor that plays a critical role in hematopoiesis and in protecting hematopoietic cells against stress-induced apoptosis. Recent research has shown that Gfi1 upregulates the expression of the nuclear protein Hemgn, which contributes to its anti-apoptotic activity. This upregulation is mediated through a specific 16-bp promoter region and is dependent on Gfi1’s interaction with the histone demethylase LSD1.
DNA-directed RNA polymerase I subunit RPA2 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the POLR1B gene.
Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EIF5B gene.
DNA-directed RNA polymerase, mitochondrial is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the POLRMT gene.
Post-transcriptional regulation is the control of gene expression at the RNA level. It occurs once the RNA polymerase has been attached to the gene's promoter and is synthesizing the nucleotide sequence. Therefore, as the name indicates, it occurs between the transcription phase and the translation phase of gene expression. These controls are critical for the regulation of many genes across human tissues. It also plays a big role in cell physiology, being implicated in pathologies such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases.
General transcription factor IIE subunit 2 (GTF2E2), also known as transcription initiation factor IIE subunit beta (TFIIE-beta), is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GTF2E2 gene.
References
- ↑ "Professor Stephen Busby FRS".
- ↑ The description reads as follows: He has made big contributions to our understanding of the process of gene transcription in bacteria and how it is regulated. In particular, his recent work has focused on pathogenic bacteria and the genes they possess that are responsible for infection.
- ↑ "Professor Steve Busby".
- ↑ "FEMS Expert: Prof Steve Busby".
- ↑ Hoult, D.I.; Busby, S.J.; Gadian, D. G.; Radda, G.K.; Richards, R. E.; Seeley, P.J. (1974). "Observation of tissue metabolites using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance". Nature. 252 (5481): 285–287. doi:10.1038/252285a0.
- ↑ Browning, Douglas F.; Busby, S.J. (2004). "The regulation of bacterial transcription initiation". Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2 (1): 57–65. doi:10.1038/nrmicro787.
- ↑ Mejía-Almonte, Citlalli; Busby, Stephen J.W.; Wade, Joseph T.; van Helden, Jacques; Arkin, Adam P.; Stormo, Gary D.; Eilbeck, Karen; Palsson, Bernhard O; Galagan, James E.; Collado-Vides, Julio (2020). "Redefining fundamental concepts of transcription initiation in bacteria". Nat. Rev. Genet. 21 (11): 699–714. doi:10.1038/s41576-020-0254-8. PMC 7990032 . PMID 32665585.
- ↑ Hothersall, J.; Osgerby, A.; Godfrey, R.; Overton, T.; Richards, R. E. "New vectors for urea-inducible recombinant protein production". New Biotechnol. 72: 89–96. doi:10.1016/j.nbt.2022.10.003.
