Stephenson 2-18

Last updated
Stephenson 2-18
Stephenson 2-18 zoomed in, 2MASS survey, 2003.png
Stephenson 2-18 together with its supposed parent cluster Stephenson 2 (upper left), viewed by the Two-Micron All Sky Survey.
Credit: Université de Strasbourg/CNRS (2003)
Observation data
Epoch J2000        Equinox J2000
Constellation Scutum
Right ascension 18h 39m 02.3709s [1]
Declination −06° 05′ 10.5357″ [1]
Characteristics
Evolutionary stage Red supergiant, possible extreme red hypergiant [2]
Spectral type ~M6 [3]
Apparent magnitude  (G)15.2631±0.0092 [1]
Apparent magnitude  (J)7.150 [4]
Apparent magnitude  (H)4.698 [4]
Apparent magnitude  (K)2.9 [4]
Astrometry
Radial velocity (Rv)89 [5]  km/s
Proper motion (μ)RA: −3.045±0.511 [1]   mas/yr
Dec.: −5.950±0.480 [1]   mas/yr
Parallax (π)−0.0081 ± 0.3120  mas [1]
Distance 18,900 [6]   ly
(5,800 [6]   pc)
Details
Radius 2,150 [7] [lower-alpha 1]   R☉
Luminosity 436,516 [7] (90,000 [8] –630,000 [6] [lower-alpha 2] )  L☉
Temperature 3,200 [7]   K
Other designations
Stephenson 2-18, Stephenson 2 DFK 1, 2MASS J18390238-0605106, IRAS 18363-0607, DENIS J183902.4-060510, MSX6C G026.1044-00.0283
Database references
SIMBAD data

Stephenson 2-18 (abbreviated to St2-18), also known as Stephenson 2 DFK 1, is an enigmatic [8] red supergiant (RSG) or possible extreme red hypergiant [2] (RHG) star in the constellation of Scutum. It lies near the open cluster Stephenson 2, which is located about 5.8 kiloparsecs (19,000 light-years ) away from Earth in the Scutum–Centaurus Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, and is assumed to be one of a group of stars at a similar distance, although some studies consider it to be an unrelated or foreground red supergiant. [5] [6] It is among the largest known stars, one of the most luminous red supergiants, and one of the most luminous stars in the Milky Way.

Contents

Stephenson 2-18 has an estimated radius of around 2,150 solar radii (1.50×109 kilometres ; 10.0 astronomical units ), which would correspond to a volume nearly 10 billion times that of the Sun. Taking this estimate as correct, it would take nearly 9 hours to travel around its surface at the speed of light, compared to 14.5 seconds for the Sun. [9] If placed at the center of Earth's Solar System, its photosphere would engulf the orbit of Saturn.

Observation history

Comparison of the sizes of selected different stars. From left to right are Cygnus OB2 #12, V382 Carinae, V915 Scorpii, UY Scuti and Stephenson 2-18. Orbits of Saturn and Neptune are also shown for comparison. Star Sizes Comparison update 2021.png
Comparison of the sizes of selected different stars. From left to right are Cygnus OB2 #12, V382 Carinae, V915 Scorpii, UY Scuti and Stephenson 2-18. Orbits of Saturn and Neptune are also shown for comparison.

The open cluster Stephenson 2 was discovered by American astronomer Charles Bruce Stephenson in 1990 in the data obtained by a deep infrared survey. [2] [10] The cluster is also known as RSGC2, one of several massive open clusters in Scutum, each containing multiple red supergiants. [11]

The brightest star in the region of the cluster was given the identifier 1 in the first analysis of cluster member properties. However, it was not considered to be a member of Stephenson 2 due to its outlying position, abnormally high brightness, and slightly atypical proper motion, instead being categorized as an unrelated red supergiant. [2]

In a later study, the same star was given the number 18 and assigned to an outlying group of stars called Stephenson 2 SW, assumed to be at a similar distance to the core cluster. [8] The designation St2-18 (short for Stephenson 2-18) is often used for the star, following the numbering from Deguchi (2010). [7] [8] To avoid confusion from using the same number for different stars and different numbers for the same star, designations from Davies (2007) are often given a prefix of DFK or D, [11] for example Stephenson 2 DFK 1 or simply D1 where the context is clear. [5]

In 2012, Stephenson 2-18, along with 56 other red supergiants, was observed in a study regarding the maser emissions from red supergiants across the galaxy. The study derived the properties of those red supergiants using the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) and the DUSTY model. Stephenson 2-18 was among the red supergiants mentioned. [7] That same year, it was observed yet again for a study regarding the types of masers on red supergiant stars in clusters. [5] During 2013, in a study regarding the red supergiants in Stephenson 2, Stephenson 2-18 (referred to as D1) was observed. [3] In several later studies, the star was described as being a "very late-type red supergiant". [12] [6]

It was also noted in Humphreys et al. (2020), albeit mistakenly referred to as RSGC1-01, another large and luminous red supergiant in the constellation of Scutum. [6]

Distance

When the cluster was originally discovered in 1990, Stephenson 2, and therefore Stephenson 2-18, was originally estimated to have a distance of around 30 kiloparsecs (98,000 light-years ), much further than the cluster is thought to reside today. [10] This greater distance was calculated by the assumption that the cluster stars were all M-type supergiants, then calculating the distance modulus based on their typical absolute magnitudes. [2]

In 2001, Nakaya et al. estimated the distance of the stars in the cluster to be 1.5 kiloparsecs (4,900 light-years), which is significantly closer than any other distance estimate given for the star and the cluster. [13] [2] Alternatively, a study around a similar timeframe gave a further distance of roughly 5.9 kiloparsecs (19,000 light-years). [14] [2] A study in 2007 determined a kinematic distance of 5.83+1.91
−0.78 kiloparsecs (19000+6200
−2500 light-years) from comparison with the cluster's radial velocity, considerably closer than the original distance of 30 kiloparsecs (98,000 light-years) quoted by Stephenson (1990). [2] However, because of Stephenson 2-18's doubtful membership, its distance was not directly estimated. This value was later adopted in a recent study of the cluster. [6]

A similar kinematic distance of 5.5 kiloparsecs (18,000 light-years) was reported in a 2010 study, derived from the average radial velocity of four of the cluster's members (96 kilometers per second) and from an association with a clump of stars near Stephenson 2, Stephenson 2 SW, locating it near the Scutum–Centaurus Arm of the Milky Way. [8] This value was later adopted in a 2012 study, which used the aforementioned distance to calculate the star's luminosity, however noted that the uncertainty in the distance was greater than 50%. Despite this, it is also stated that distances to massive star clusters will be improved in the future. [7]

Verheyen et al. (2013) used the average radial velocity of the cluster (+109.3 ± 0.7 kilometers per second) to derive a kinematic distance of roughly 6 kiloparsecs (20,000 light-years) for the cluster. However, Stephenson 2-18's radial velocity is calculated to be only 89 kilometers per second and therefore leading to the study's statement that the star is a field red supergiant unassociated with the cluster. [5]

Physical properties

Evolutionary stage

Australia Telescope Compact Array used to derive Stephenson 2-18's 2012 bolometric luminosity and effective temperature estimates CSIRO ScienceImage 3881 Five Antennas at Narrabri - restoration1.jpg
Australia Telescope Compact Array used to derive Stephenson 2-18's 2012 bolometric luminosity and effective temperature estimates

St2-18 shows the traits and properties of a highly luminous red supergiant, with a spectral type of M6, which is unusual for a supergiant star. [3] This makes it one of the most extreme stars in the Milky Way. It occupies the top right corner of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, a region characterized for exceptionally large and luminous low-temperature stars.

Stephenson 2-18 is usually classified as a red supergiant, partly due to its broad line profile. [8] [2] However, its significant infrared excess has led the authors of Davies (2007) to state that the star might be a red hypergiant, like VY Canis Majoris. It is also stated that Stephenson 2-18 is on the brink of ejecting its outer layers and evolving into a luminous blue variable (LBV) or Wolf–Rayet star (WR star). [2]

Luminosity

One calculation for finding the bolometric luminosity by fitting the Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) using the DUSTY model gives the star a luminosity of nearly 440,000 L☉. [7]

An alternate but older calculation from 2010, still assuming membership of the Stephenson 2 cluster at 5.5  kpc but based on 12 and 25  μm flux densities, gives a much lower and relatively modest luminosity of 90,000 L☉. [8]

A newer calculation, based on SED integration (based on published fluxes) and assuming a distance of 5.8 kpc, gives a bolometric luminosity of 630,000 L☉. However, it has been noted that its SED is somewhat peculiar, with fluxes that couldn't fit with the accepted range of appropriate temperatures for an RSG as well as a standard reddening law. This would suggest a higher extinction, which would make it be even more luminous. Because of this unusually high luminosity, the star's membership to the Stephenson 2 cluster has been considered doubtful. [6] [lower-alpha 2] As stated in Negueruela et al. (2012), the stellar association is spread over a large area, with Stephenson 2 blending into the surrounding area. [15] [6]

Temperature

An effective temperature of 3,200  K was calculated in a 2012 study by SED integration using the DUSTY model, [7] which would make it much cooler than the coolest red supergiants predicted by stellar evolutionary theory (typically around 3,500  K ). [16]

Spectral type

In 2007, Davies et al. estimated Stephenson 2-18's spectral type at M5 or M6, unusual and very late for even a red supergiant star, based on its CO-bandhead absorption. [2] Negueruela et al. (2013) similarly identified Stephenson 2-18's spectral type to be around M6, based on its spectrum and the characteristics of certain spectral features, such as titanium oxide (TiO) spectral lines. [3]

Size

Stephenson 2-18 compared to the Sun Stephenson2-18.svg
Stephenson 2-18 compared to the Sun

A radius of 2,150  R☉ (1.50×109  km ; 10.0  au ; 930,000,000  mi ) was derived from a bolometric luminosity of nearly 440,000 L☉ and an estimated effective temperature of 3,200  K , which is considerably larger than theoretical models of the largest red supergiants predicted by stellar evolutionary theory (around 1,500 R☉). [16] [7] Assuming this value is correct, this would make it larger than other famous red supergiants, such as Antares A, Betelgeuse, VY Canis Majoris and UY Scuti.

Mass loss

Stephenson 2-18 has been estimated to have a mass loss rate of roughly 1.35×10−5 M☉ per year, [7] which is among the highest known for any red supergiant star. It is possible that Stephenson 2-18 underwent an extreme mass loss episode recently, due to its significant infrared excess. [2]

In 2013, an article describing the red supergiants in Stephenson 2 stated that Stephenson 2-18 (referred to as D1) and D2 (another member of Stephenson 2) have maser emissions, indicating that they have the highest mass loss in the cluster. Only the stars with the highest bolometric luminosities in the cluster seem to present maser emissions. [3] Stephenson 2-18 displays strong silicate emission, especially at wavelengths of 10 μm and 18 μm. [8] Water masers were detected in the star as well. [7]

Membership

Stephenson 2-18 seen by Pan-STARRS DR1 Stephenson 2 DFK 1 seen by PanSTARRS DR1.png
Stephenson 2-18 seen by Pan-STARRS DR1

It has been debated for a while if this star is actually part of its supposed cluster. Due to its radial velocity being below the other cluster stars but with some spectrum-derived indications showing signs of membership, some sources state that the star is unlikely to be a foreground giant; [2] [3] however, more recent papers considered the star an unlikely member due to its extreme and inconsistent properties. [6] Using radial velocities determined from SiO maser emission and IR CO absorption, a study of red supergiant masers in massive clusters considered Stephenson 2-18 as a field red supergiant, unrelated to Stephenson 2. This is due to its lower radial velocity that is significantly different compared to other stars from Stephenson 2. [5] Despite this, Stephenson 2-18's membership cannot be ruled out yet. [6]

Another possibility is that Stephenson 2-18 is actually a member, because its radial velocity is offset by an expanding optically thick envelope. The velocity difference between this star’s radial velocity and Stephenson 2 itself (20 kilometers per second) is a typical outflow speed for red supergiants. [2] Another study says that Stephenson 2-18 is part of a cluster related to Stephenson 2, Stephenson 2 SW, which is assumed to be at the same distance as the core cluster itself. This proposed cluster contains several other massive stars and red supergiants, including Stephenson 2 DFK 49. [8]

Uncertainty

The distance of Stephenson 2-18 has been stated to have a relative uncertainty greater than 50%, [7] and the radius of 2,150 R☉ could possibly be an overestimation because the largest stellar radii predicted by stellar evolutionary theory is estimated to only be roughly 1,500 R☉. [16] Luminosity estimates for the star are uncertain as well, as another estimate of the luminosity gave a value of 90,000 L☉. [8]

The star's doubtful membership, uncertain distance and differing radial velocities compared to the rest of the stars in Stephenson 2 have caused some authors to consider the star as a red supergiant unrelated to Stephenson 2 or any of the red supergiant clusters at the base of the Scutum–Centaurus Arm. [5] [6]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Applying the Stefan–Boltzmann law with a nominal solar effective temperature of 5,772  K:
    .
  2. 1 2 Mistakenly referred to as RSGC1-01.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scutum (constellation)</span> Small constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere

Scutum is a small constellation. Its name is Latin for shield, and it was originally named Scutum Sobiescianum by Johannes Hevelius in 1684. Located just south of the celestial equator, its four brightest stars form a narrow diamond shape. It is one of the 88 IAU designated constellations defined in 1922.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red supergiant</span> Stars with a supergiant luminosity class with a spectral type of K or M

Red supergiants (RSGs) are stars with a supergiant luminosity class of spectral type K or M. They are the largest stars in the universe in terms of volume, although they are not the most massive or luminous. Betelgeuse and Antares are the brightest and best known red supergiants (RSGs), indeed the only first magnitude red supergiant stars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scutum–Centaurus Arm</span> Spiral arm of the Milky Way

The Scutum–Centaurus Arm, also known as Scutum-Crux arm, is a long, diffuse curving streamer of stars, gas and dust that spirals outward from the proximate end of the Milky Way's central bar. The Milky Way has been posited since the 1950s to have four spiral arms — numerous studies contest or nuance this number. In 2008, observations using the Spitzer Space Telescope failed to show the expected density of red clump giants in the direction of the Sagittarius and Norma arms. In January 2014, a 12-year study into the distribution and lifespan of massive stars and a 2013-reporting study of the distribution of masers and open clusters both found corroboratory, though would not state irrefutable, evidence for four principal spiral arms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NGC 663</span> Open star cluster in the constellation Cassiopeia

NGC 663 is a young open cluster in the constellation of Cassiopeia. It has an estimated 400 stars and spans about a quarter of a degree across the sky. It can reportedly be detected with the unaided eye, although a telescope is recommended for best viewing. The brightest members of the cluster can be viewed with binoculars. Although the listed visual magnitude is 7.1, several observers have reported higher estimates.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Westerlund 1</span> Super star cluster in the Milky Way Galaxy

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">MY Cephei</span> Star in the constellation Cepheus

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypergiant</span> Rare star with tremendous luminosity and high rates of mass loss by stellar winds

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stephenson 2</span> Massive open cluster in the constellation Scutum

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">RSGC1</span> Massive open cluster with many red supergiants in the constellation Scutum

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Westerlund 1-237</span> Possible red supergiant in the Westerlund 1 super star cluster

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">IRAS 18357–0604</span> Star in the constellation Scutum

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Stephenson 2 DFK 49 or St2-11 is a putative post red supergiant star in the constellation Scutum. It is located in the massive open cluster Stephenson 2. It is possibly one of the largest known stars with radius estimates ranging from almost 1,000 solar radii to 1,300 solar radii. If the upper estimate is correct, then Stephenson 2 DFK 49 has a volume 2.2 billion times that of the Sun. If it was placed at the center of the Solar System, its photosphere will potentially approach or engulf Jupiter's orbit. It loses mass at a very high rate, resulting in large amounts of Infrared excess.

References

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  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Deguchi, Shuji; Nakashima, Jun-Ichi; Zhang, Yong; Chong, Selina S. N.; Koike, Kazutaka; Kwok, Sun (2010). "SiO and H2O Maser Observations of Red Supergiants in Star Clusters Embedded in the Galactic Disk". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan . 62 (2): 391–407. arXiv: 1002.2492 . Bibcode:2010PASJ...62..391D. doi:10.1093/pasj/62.2.391. S2CID   24396370.
  9. ↑ "Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Figures". NASA. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
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  11. 1 2 Negueruela, I.; González-Fernández, C.; Marco, A.; Clark, J. S.; Martínez-Núñez, S. (2010). "Another cluster of red supergiants close to RSGC1". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 513: A74. arXiv: 1002.1823 . Bibcode:2010A&A...513A..74N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913373. S2CID   118531372.
  12. ↑ Negueruela, Ignacio (2016). "Clusters rich in red supergiants". Astronomy in Focus, as presented at the IAU XXIX General Assembly, 2015. 29B: 461–463. Bibcode:2016IAUFM..29B.461N. doi: 10.1017/S1743921316005858 .
  13. ↑ Nakaya, H.; Watanabe, M.; Ando, M.; Nagata, T.; Sato, S. (2001). "A Highly Reddened Star Cluster Embedded in the Galactic Plane". The Astronomical Journal. 122: 876–884. doi:10.1086/321178.
  14. ↑ Ortolani, S.; Bica, E.; Barbuy, B.; Momany, Y. (2002). "The very reddened open clusters Pismis 23 (Lyngå 10) and Stephenson 2". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 390: 931–935. Bibcode:2002A&A...390..931O. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361:20020716 .
  15. ↑ Negueruela, I.; Marco, A.; González-Fernández, C.; Jiménez-Esteban, F.; Clark, J. S.; Garcia, M.; Solano, E. (2012). "Red supergiants around the obscured open cluster Stephenson 2". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 547: A15. arXiv: 1208.3282 . Bibcode:2012A&A...547A..15N. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219540. S2CID   42961348.
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