Student protest

Last updated
City University of Hong Kong students staging a sit-in during 2014 Hong Kong protests over blocking of electoral reforms HK CityU Student protest 20140929.jpg
City University of Hong Kong students staging a sit-in during 2014 Hong Kong protests over blocking of electoral reforms

Campus protest or student protest is a form of student activism that takes the form of protest at university campuses. Such protests encompass a wide range of activities that indicate student dissatisfaction with a given political or academics issue and mobilization to communicate this dissatisfaction to the authorities (university or civil or both) and society in general and hopefully remedy the problem. Protest forms include but are not limited to: sit-ins, occupations of university offices or buildings, strikes etc. More extreme forms include suicide such as the case of Jan Palach's, [1] and Jan Zajíc's protests against the end of the Prague Spring [2] and Kostas Georgakis' protest against the Greek junta of 1967–1974. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [ dubious – discuss ]

Contents

History

In the West, student protests such as strikes date to the early days of universities in the Middle Ages, with some of the earliest being the University of Oxford strike of 1209, [9] [10] and the University of Paris strike of 1229, which lasted two years.

More widespread student demonstrations occurred in 19th-century Europe, for example in Imperial Russia. [11]

20th century

Protests at historically black colleges included Shaw University (1919), Fisk University (1924–1925), Howard University (1925) and Hampton Institute (1925, 1927). The protests often involved civil rights issues between black students and white administrators. [12] [13] In the 1930s, some Jewish students in Poland protested against anti-Semitic ghetto benches legislation. [14]

In the second half of the 20th century, significant demonstrations almost-simultaneously in many countries: the May 68 events in France began as a series of student strikes; [15] Polish political crisis that occurred the same year also saw a major student activism; [16] and the Mexican Movement of 1968 also started with students. The largest student strike in the history of the United States occurred in May and June 1970, in the aftermath of the American invasion of Cambodia and the killings of student protesters at Kent State University in Ohio. An estimated four million students at more than 450 universities, colleges and high schools participated in what became known as the Student strike of 1970. [17]

It has been argued that student strikes and activism have a similarly long history in Confucian Asia. [18]

21st century

Starting April 2024, a wave of college protests began following mass arrests at a Colombia University protest. [19] Students and faculty at dozens of universities protested the ongoing Israel-Hamas War, seeking for college institutions to divest from pro-Israeli causes. [20] [21]

Participation and issues

Student occupation at Cambridge University, 2010 Cambridge University, Combination Room, 2010 student occupation.jpg
Student occupation at Cambridge University, 2010
Edinburgh University student Gaza protest, Old College Quad encampment, May 2024. Edinburgh University Student Gaza Protest May 2024.jpg
Edinburgh University student Gaza protest, Old College Quad encampment, May 2024.

Early studies of campus protests conducted in the United States in the mid-1960s suggested that students who were more likely to take part in the protests tended to come from middle class and upper middle class backgrounds, major in social sciences and humanities, and come from families with liberal political views. [22] Later studies from early 1970s, however, suggested that participation in protests was broader, through still more likely for students from social sciences and humanities than more vocational-oriented fields like economy or engineering. [22] Student protesters were also more likely to describe themselves as having liberal or centrist political beliefs, and feeling politically alienated, lacking confidence in the party system and public officials. [22]

Early campus protests in the United States were described as left-leaning and liberal. [22] More recent research[ when? ] shares a similar view, suggesting that right-leaning, conservative students and faculty are less likely to organize or join campus protests. [23] A study of campus protests in the United States in the early 1990s identified major themes for approximately 60% of over two hundred incidents covered by media as multiculturalism and identity struggle, or in more detail as racial and ethnic struggle, women's concerns, or gay rights activities and represent what recent scholars have described both affectionately and pejoratively as "culture/cultural wars," "campus wars," "multicultural unrest," or "identity politics"... The remaining examples of student protest concerned funding (including tuition concerns), governance, world affairs, and environmental causes". [24]

While less common, protests similar to campus protests can also happen at secondary-level education facilities, like high schools. [22]

Forms

Brazilian students march against the military rule in Brazil, 1966 Manifestacao estudantil contra a Ditadura Militar 526.tif
Brazilian students march against the military rule in Brazil, 1966
Student syndicalist general strike in Chile CL Society 592- Student protest.jpg
Student syndicalist general strike in Chile

Repertoire of contention in campus protests can take various forms, from peaceful sit-ins, marches, teach-ins, to more active forms that can spread off-campus and include violent clashes with the authorities. [22] [25] Campus protests can also involve faculty members participating in them in addition to students, through protests led by or organized by faculty, rather than students, are a minority. [26] [27] Just like students can worry about being expelled for participation in the protests, some faculty members are concerned about their job security if they were to become involved in such incidents. [28] [23] [29] [30]

A common tactic of student protest is to go on strike (sometimes called a boycott of classes), which occurs when students enrolled at a teaching institution such as a school, college or university refuse to go to class. It is meant to resemble strike action by organized labour. Whereas a normal strike is intended to inflict economic damage to an employer, a student strike is more of a logistical threat: the concerned institution or government cannot afford to have a large number of students simultaneously fail to graduate. The term "student strike" has been criticized as inaccurate by some unions [31] and commentators in the news media. [32] These groups have indicated that they believe the term boycott is more accurate. [31] [32]

Student protests can often spread off-campus and grow in scale, mobilizing off campus activists and organizations, for example the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign led to the city-wide 2014 Hong Kong protests. [33]

Response and aftermath

Victory march by Bangladeshi students after the resignation of Sheikh Hasina in 2024 The victory celebration of Bangladeshi student's one point movement.jpg
Victory march by Bangladeshi students after the resignation of Sheikh Hasina in 2024

Over time, university tolerance of campus protests have grown; while protests occurred before the 20th century they were more likely to be "crushed... with an iron fist... by university leaders" than by mid-20th century, when they have become much more common and tolerated. By the early 21st century, the university response to campus protest in the United States is much more likely to be negotiations, and willingness to yield at least to some of the student demands. [34] There was a resurgence of student activism in the United States in 2015. [35] In Germany, tuition in public universities were abolished in response to student protests between 2006 and 2016. [36] [37]

University response to student activism and campus protests can still be much harsher in less liberal countries like China or Taiwan. [28] In 1980 student protests in South Korea were violently suppressed by the military (the Gwangju uprising). [38] As recently as in 1989 a large scale student demonstration in China that moved off-campus, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, was met with deadly force. [39]

Examples

See also

Related Research Articles

Intifada is an Arabic word for a rebellion or uprising, or a resistance movement. It can be used to refer to an uprising against oppression.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">May 68</span> Period of left-wing civil unrests in France

Beginning in May 1968, a period of civil unrest occurred throughout France, lasting seven weeks and punctuated by demonstrations, general strikes, and the occupation of universities and factories. At the height of events, which have since become known as May 68, the economy of France came to a halt. The protests reached a point that made political leaders fear civil war or revolution; the national government briefly ceased to function after President Charles de Gaulle secretly fled France to West Germany on the 29th. The protests are sometimes linked to similar movements around the same time worldwide that inspired a generation of protest art in the form of songs, imaginative graffiti, posters, and slogans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Student activism</span> Work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change

Student activism or campus activism is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. In addition to education, student groups often play central roles in democratization and winning civil rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jan Palach</span> Student who committed suicide by self-immolation in protest

Jan Palach was a Czech student of history and political economics at Charles University in Prague. His self-immolation in 1969 at age 20 was a political protest against the end of the Prague Spring resulting from the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 by the Warsaw Pact armies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</span> 1965–1973 anti-war movement

Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began in 1965 with demonstrations against the escalating role of the United States in the Vietnam War. Over the next several years, these demonstrations grew into a broad social movement which shaped the polarizing debates of the late 1960s and early 1970s on American involvement in the Vietnam War.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jan Zajíc</span> Czech protester

Jan Zajíc was a Czech student who killed himself by self-immolation as a political protest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Student riot</span> Civil disorder precipitated by students

Student riots, college riots, or campus riots are riots precipitated by students, generally from a college, university, or other school. Student riots are often an aspect of student protests.

In 1968, a series of protests at Columbia University in New York City were one among the various student demonstrations that occurred around the globe in that year. The Columbia protests erupted over the spring of that year after students discovered links between the university and the institutional apparatus supporting the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, as well as their concern over an allegedly segregated gymnasium to be constructed in the nearby Morningside Park. The protests resulted in the student occupation of many university buildings and the eventual violent removal of protesters by the New York City Police Department.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicano Movement</span> Social and political movement combating racism in the United States

The Chicano Movement, also referred to as El Movimiento, was a social and political movement in the United States that worked to embrace a Chicano/a identity and worldview that combated structural racism, encouraged cultural revitalization, and achieved community empowerment by rejecting assimilation. Chicanos also expressed solidarity and defined their culture through the development of Chicano art during El Movimiento, and stood firm in preserving their religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protests of 1968</span> Worldwide escalation of social conflicts

The protests of 1968 comprised a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, which were predominantly characterized by the rise of left-wing politics, anti-war sentiment, civil rights urgency, youth counterculture within the silent and baby boomer generations, and popular rebellions against state militaries and bureaucracies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">8888 Uprising</span> 1988 protests in Burma (Myanmar)

The 8888 Uprising, also known as the People Power Uprising and the 1988 Uprising, was a series of nationwide protests, marches, and riots in Burma that peaked in August 1988. Key events occurred on 8 August 1988 and therefore it is commonly known as the "8888 Uprising". The protests began as a student movement and were organised largely by university students at the Rangoon Arts and Sciences University and the Rangoon Institute of Technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kostas Georgakis</span> Greek activist (1948–1970)

Kostas Georgakis was a Greek student studying geology in Italy. On 26 July 1970, while in Italy, he gave an interview denouncing the dictatorial regime of Georgios Papadopoulos. The junta retaliated by attacking him, pressuring his family, and rescinding his military exemption. In a final, fatal, protest in the early hours of 19 September 1970, Georgakis set himself ablaze in Matteotti square in Genoa. He died later that day, an estimated 1,500 people attended his 22 September funeral, with hundreds of anti-junta resistance members leading a demonstration. Melina Mercouri carried a bouquet for the hero of the anti-junta. After being briefly interred in Genoa his remains were transported by ship to Corfu, and on 18 January 1971 he was buried. After the junta collapsed the Government of Greece erected a monument and plaque in his home town of Corfu, another plaque was placed in Matteotti square, and multiple poems have been written in his honor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1969 Greensboro uprising</span> Riots in Greensboro, North Carolina

The 1969 Greensboro uprising occurred on and around the campuses of James B. Dudley High School and North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (A&T) in Greensboro, North Carolina, when, over the course of May 21 to May 25, gunfire was exchanged between student protesters, police and National Guard. One bystander, sophomore honors student Willie Grimes, was killed, although whether he was killed by police or protesters remains unknown.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1973 Thai popular uprising</span> Potest movement that overthrew Thanom Kittikachorn

The popular uprising of 14 October 1973 was a watershed event in Thailand's history. The uprising resulted in the end of the ruling military dictatorship of anti-communist Thanom Kittikachorn and altered the Thai political system. Notably, it highlighted the growing influence of Thai university students in politics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Activism</span> Efforts to make change in society toward a perceived greater good

Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society toward a perceived common good. Forms of activism range from mandate building in a community, petitioning elected officials, running or contributing to a political campaign, preferential patronage of businesses, and demonstrative forms of activism like rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, or hunger strikes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1962 Rangoon University protests</span>

The 1962 Rangoon University protests, also known as the 7 July Student Uprising, were a series of marches, demonstrations, and protests against stricter campus regulations, the end of the system of university self-administration, and the policy of the new military regime of General Ne Win. The main events took place in Rangoon, Burma, from 7 to 8 July 1962. On 7 July the military regime violently suppressed a student demonstration at Rangoon University attended by some 5,000 students. This resulted in the deaths of more than one hundred, and the arrest of more than 6,000 students according to unofficial sources. However, official government statements put the death toll at 15. In the morning hours of the next day, the military regime blew up the historic Rangoon University Students' Union (RUSU) building, which had been the symbol of the anti-colonial nationalism struggle since the 1920s.

The Asian American Movement was a sociopolitical movement in which the widespread grassroots effort of Asian Americans affected racial, social and political change in the U.S., reaching its peak in the late 1960s to mid-1970s. During this period Asian Americans promoted anti-war and anti-imperialist activism, directly opposing what was viewed as an unjust Vietnam war. The American Asian Movement (AAM) differs from previous Asian American activism due to its emphasis on Pan-Asianism and its solidarity with U.S. and international Third World movements such as the Third World Liberation Front.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1968–1969 Japanese university protests</span> Student protests in Japan

In 1968 and 1969, student protests at several Japanese universities ultimately forced the closure of campuses across Japan. Known as daigaku funsō or daigaku tōsō, the protests were part of the worldwide protest cycle in 1968 and the late-1960s Japanese protest cycle, including the Anpo protests of 1970 and the struggle against the construction of Narita Airport. Students demonstrated initially against practical issues in universities and eventually formed the Zenkyōtō in mid-1968 to organize themselves. The Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management allowed for the dispersal of protesters in 1969.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian Student Movement</span> 1960–1974 Marxist-Leninist student movement in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Student Movement was a period of radical Marxist–Leninist student activism and movement in Ethiopia from the mid-1960s to the 1974 revolution. The first demonstration occurred in 1965 by university student, led by Marxist–Leninist motivation chanting "Land to the Tiller" and "Is poverty a crime?". The student uprisings continued in 1966 until 1969. The movement also called for the abolition of monarchy under Emperor Haile Selassie and feudalism in Ethiopia.

References

  1. ↑ "Jaroslava Moserova – remembering Jan Palach – Radio Prague". Radio.cz. 21 January 2003. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  2. ↑ Alan Levy (29 September 2015). So Many Heroes. Permanent Press (ORD). p. 560. ISBN   978-1-5040-2334-4.
  3. ↑ "Story of Kostas in Corfu City Hall website". Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2010-03-17.. Quote: During the years of dictatorship in Greece (1967–1974) many Corfiots were enlisted in resistance groups, but the case of Kostas Georgakis is unique in the whole of Greece. The 22-year-old Corfiot student of geology with an act of self-sacrifice and a spirit of dynamic protest, which could not bear to see Greece under the military regime, set himself on fire the first morning hours of 19th September 1970 in the Matteoti Sq. in the Italian city of Genoa. For security reasons his body was buried in Corfu four months later, his self-sacrifice though, a rare event for that time, caused international sensation and was considered one of the most important resistance acts of that period. Later the Hellenic State and his homeland Corfu honoured the man, who with his life became a symbol of resistance and patriotism, herald of the students' sacrifice in Polytechnion in 1973
  4. ↑ Annamaria Rivera (2012). Il fuoco della rivolta. Torce umane dal Maghreb all'Europa. EDIZIONI DEDALO. p. 118. ISBN   978-88-220-6322-9 . Retrieved 15 March 2013. geologia Kostas Georgakis, op- positore greco di cultura laica, esasperato dalle minacce e dalle rappresaglie subite da agenti dei servizi segreti greci in Italia, s'im- molò in piazza Matteotti per protestare contro la giunta dei Co- lonnelli.
  5. ↑ Helen Vlachos (1972). Griechenland, Dokumentation einer Diktatur. Jugend und Volk. ISBN   978-3-7141-7415-1 . Retrieved 15 March 2013. In memoriam Kostas Georgakis Er starb für die Freiheit Griechenlands so wie Jan Palach für die der Tschechoslowakei Lieber Vater, verzeih mir diese Tat und weine nicht. Dein Sohn ist kein Held, er ist ein Mann wie alle anderen, vielleicht ..
  6. ↑ Giovanni Pattavina; Oriana Fallaci (1984). Alekos Panagulis, il rivoluzionario don Chisciotte di Oriana Fallaci: saggio politico-letterario. Edizioni italiane di letteratura e scienze. p. 211. Retrieved 10 April 2013. no di questi fu lo studente greco Kostas Georgakis, un ragazzo di 22 anni che il 29 settembre 1970 si bruciò vivo a Genova per protestare contro la soppressione della libertà in Grecia. La sera del suo sacrificio riaccompagnò a casa la ...
  7. ↑ Rivisteria. 2000. p. 119. Retrieved 10 April 2013. Il caso Kostas Georgakis. Pag.250, L.25000. ISBN   88-8163-217-9. Erga, Genova. Il suicidio del giovane studente greco Kostas Georgakis in sacrificio alla propria patria nel nome di libertà e democrazia apre una finestra su trent'anni di storia ...
  8. ↑ Kostis Kornetis (15 November 2013). Children of the Dictatorship: Student Resistance, Cultural Politics and the "Long 1960s" in Greece. Berghahn Books. pp. 66–67. ISBN   978-1-78238-001-6. In 1971 at the Piazza Matteotti in Genova, the young student Kostas Georgakis set himself ablaze in protest against the ... a Panteios student and presentday political scientist, recalls how he suffered when Georgakis died, being inspired by his ...
  9. ↑ Joseph Lynch (16 December 2013). The Medieval Church: A Brief History. Routledge. pp. 254–. ISBN   978-1-317-87053-1.
  10. ↑ Benjamin McKie Rastall (1905). The Cripple Creek strike of 1893. Colorado College. pp. 47–49.
  11. ↑ Hugh Seton-Watson (24 February 2017). The Decline of Imperial Russia: 1855–1914. Taylor & Francis. pp. 144–. ISBN   978-1-315-40516-2.
  12. ↑ Davis, Sarajanee. "Black Student Activism in the 1920s and 1930s". www.ncpedia.org. NCpedia. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  13. ↑ Alford, James. "Training the Hands, Head, and Heart: Student Protest and Acitivism at Hampton Institute During the 1920s". ucincinnatipress.manifoldapp.org. University of Cincinnati Press. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  14. ↑ Emanuel Melzer (31 December 1997). No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935–1939. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 75. ISBN   978-0-87820-141-9.
  15. ↑ Michael Staudenmaier (2012). Truth and Revolution: A History of the Sojourner Truth Organization, 1969–1986. AK Press. pp. 42–. ISBN   978-1-84935-097-6.
  16. ↑ Beate Kutschke; Barley Norton (25 April 2013). Music and Protest in 1968. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–. ISBN   978-1-107-00732-1.
  17. ↑ Robert Wuthnow (2012). Red State Religion: Faith and Politics in America's Heartland. Princeton University Press. p. 248. ISBN   978-0-691-15055-0.
  18. ↑ Gerard J.De Groot (25 September 2014). Student Protest: The Sixties and After. Taylor & Francis. pp. 227–. ISBN   978-1-317-88048-6.
  19. ↑ Goldstein, Judy. "In Focus: The first 24 hours of the 'Gaza Solidarity Encampment'". Columbia Daily Spectator. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  20. ↑ Yerushalmy, Jonathan; Livingstone, Helen; Salam, Erum. "Where are the US college campus protests and what is happening?". www.theguardian.com. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  21. ↑ "What do pro-Palestinian student protesters at US universities want?". 2024-04-26. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  22. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Clarke, James W.; Egan, Joseph (1972-05-01). "Social and Political Dimensions of Campus Protest Activity". The Journal of Politics. 34 (2): 500–523. doi:10.2307/2129365. ISSN   0022-3816. JSTOR   2129365. S2CID   153787448.
  23. 1 2 Jonathan Zimmerman (8 August 2016). Campus Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN   978-0-19-062741-6.
  24. ↑ Rhoads, Robert A. (1998-11-01). "Student Protest and Multicultural Reform". The Journal of Higher Education. 69 (6): 621–646. doi:10.1080/00221546.1998.11780745. ISSN   0022-1546.
  25. ↑ Rob Kirkpatrick (24 January 2011). 1969: The Year Everything Changed. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. pp. 9–. ISBN   978-1-61608-055-6.
  26. ↑ J. Fredericks Volkwein (1968). Relationship of college student protest and participation in policy-making to institutional characteristics. Cornell Univ. p. 65.
  27. ↑ Bruce L.R. Smith (18 June 1975). The New Political Economy: The Public Use of the Private Sector. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 137. ISBN   978-1-349-02042-3.
  28. 1 2 Teresa Wright (2001). The Perils of Protest: State Repression and Student Activism in China and Taiwan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 100. ISBN   978-0-8248-2401-3.
  29. ↑ Astin, Alexander W.; Bayer, Alan E. (1971-04-01). "Antecedents and Consequents of Disruptive Campus Protests". Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance. 4 (1): 18–30. doi:10.1080/00256307.1971.12022476. ISSN   0025-6307.
  30. ↑ Jeffrey A. Turner (2010). Sitting in and Speaking Out: Student Movements in the American South, 1960-1970. University of Georgia Press. p. 68. ISBN   978-0-8203-3593-3.
  31. 1 2 "CUPFA Response to Student Class Boycott: March 3, 2012". Concordia University Part Time Faculty Association. 2012-03-03. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
  32. 1 2 Deck, Larry (2012-04-15). "Student "Strike" Is Losing Steam". Le Québécois Libre (299). ISSN   1707-0309.
  33. ↑ Jason Luger; Julie Ren (18 May 2017). Art and the City: Worlding the Discussion Through a Critical Artscape. Taylor & Francis. pp. 47–. ISBN   978-1-315-30302-4.
  34. ↑ Jonathan Zimmerman (8 August 2016). Campus Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN   978-0-19-062741-6.
  35. ↑ Wong, Alia (2015-05-21). "Student Activism Is Making a Comeback". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-04-24.
  36. ↑ Türkoğlu, Didem (2019-09-12). "Student protests and organised labour: Developing a research agenda for mobilisation in late neoliberalism". Current Sociology. 67 (7): 997–1017. doi:10.1177/0011392119865768. ISSN   0011-3921. S2CID   203453013.
  37. ↑ "Germany scraps tuition fees after mass student protests cause shift in public opinion - International Viewpoint - online socialist magazine". internationalviewpoint.org. Retrieved 2024-05-01.
  38. ↑ Meredith Leigh Weiss; Edward Aspinall (2012). Student Activism in Asia: Between Protest and Powerlessness. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 134–. ISBN   978-0-8166-7969-0.
  39. ↑ Cheng, Kris (2017-12-21). "Declassified: Chinese official said at least 10,000 civilians died in 1989 Tiananmen massacre, documents show". Hong Kong Free Press HKFP. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
  40. ↑ "Kids' strike over school tests".
  41. ↑ "BBC News – HK students escalate pro-democracy protest". bbc.co.uk. 2014-09-27. Retrieved 2014-09-27.
  42. ↑ "BBC News – Spain protest over riot police beatings in Valencia". Bbc.co.uk. 2012-02-21. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
  43. ↑ Tremlett, Giles (February 21, 2012). "Valencia police and students clash over education cuts". The Guardian– via www.theguardian.com.
  44. ↑ "Thousands take to Valencia streets in protest against police violence and education cuts | In English | EL PAÍS". El País. Elpais.com. 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
  45. ↑ "Spanish police clash violently with students: "I don't understand how the situation degenerated so fast" | The FRANCE 24 Observers". Observers.france24.com. 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.