Student protest

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City University of Hong Kong students staging a sit-in during 2014 Hong Kong protests over blocking of electoral reforms HK CityU Student protest 20140929.jpg
City University of Hong Kong students staging a sit-in during 2014 Hong Kong protests over blocking of electoral reforms

Campus protest or student protest is a form of student activism that takes the form of protest at university campuses. Such protests encompass a wide range of activities that indicate student dissatisfaction with a given political or academics issue and mobilization to communicate this dissatisfaction to the authorities (university or civil or both) and society in general and hopefully remedy the problem. Protest forms include but are not limited to: sit-ins, occupations of university offices or buildings, strikes etc. More extreme forms include suicide such as the case of Jan Palach's, [1] and Jan Zajíc's protests against the end of the Prague Spring [2] and Kostas Georgakis' protest against the Greek junta of 1967–1974. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [ dubious – discuss ]

Contents

History

In the West, student protests such as strikes date to the early days of universities in the Middle Ages, with some of the earliest being the University of Oxford strike of 1209, [9] [10] and the University of Paris strike of 1229, which lasted two years.

More widespread student demonstrations occurred in 19th-century Europe, for example in Imperial Russia. [11]

20th century

Protests at historically black colleges included Shaw University (1919), Fisk University (1924–1925), Howard University (1925) and Hampton Institute (1925, 1927). The protests often involved civil rights issues between black students and white administrators. [12] [13] In the 1930s, some Jewish students in Poland protested against anti-Semitic ghetto benches legislation. [14]

In the second half of the 20th century, significant demonstrations almost-simultaneously in many countries: the May 68 events in France began as a series of student strikes; [15] Polish political crisis that occurred the same year also saw a major student activism; [16] and the Mexican Movement of 1968 also started with students. The largest student strike in the history of the United States occurred in May and June 1970, in the aftermath of the American invasion of Cambodia and the killings of student protesters at Kent State University in Ohio. An estimated four million students at more than 450 universities, colleges and high schools participated in what became known as the Student strike of 1970. [17]

It has been argued that student strikes and activism have a similarly long history in Confucian Asia. [18]

21st century

A peak of activism ignited in 2013 across college campuses nationally with a movement known as the new Campus Anti-Rape Movement (CARM). This insurgence of student activism put the political issue of campus rape back into the national conversation. Uniquely, with the growing digital world in the early 21st century, this movement was able to accomplish what decades of activism in the realm of college campus sexual assault hadn't previously through the use of social media and networking [19] . In a 2020 literature review by Bovill et al., researchers found that student activism can effectively alter campus policies, this is especially true against sexual violence on college campuses and how universities mishandle complaints. The researchers found that student-led movements engaging in visible protests can be particularly effective. Additionally, researchers recommended that rather than perceive student activism as a threat to their respective institutions, universities should work alongside their students, so students feel comfortable expressing their opinions and potential solutions [20] .

Starting April 2024, a wave of college protests began following mass arrests at a Colombia University protest. [21] Students and faculty at dozens of universities protested the ongoing Israel-Hamas War, seeking for college institutions to divest from pro-Israeli causes. [22] [23]

Participation and issues

Student occupation at Cambridge University, 2010 Cambridge University, Combination Room, 2010 student occupation.jpg
Student occupation at Cambridge University, 2010
Edinburgh University student Gaza protest, Old College Quad encampment, May 2024. Edinburgh University Student Gaza Protest May 2024.jpg
Edinburgh University student Gaza protest, Old College Quad encampment, May 2024.

Early studies of campus protests conducted in the United States in the mid-1960s suggested that students who were more likely to take part in the protests tended to come from middle class and upper middle class backgrounds, major in social sciences and humanities, and come from families with liberal political views. [24] Later studies from early 1970s, however, suggested that participation in protests was broader, through still more likely for students from social sciences and humanities than more vocational-oriented fields like economy or engineering. [24] Student protesters were also more likely to describe themselves as having liberal or centrist political beliefs, and feeling politically alienated, lacking confidence in the party system and public officials. [24]

Early campus protests in the United States were described as left-leaning and liberal. [24] More recent research[ when? ] shares a similar view, suggesting that right-leaning, conservative students and faculty are less likely to organize or join campus protests. [25] A study of campus protests in the United States in the early 1990s identified major themes for approximately 60% of over two hundred incidents covered by media as multiculturalism and identity struggle, or in more detail as racial and ethnic struggle, women's concerns, or gay rights activities and represent what recent scholars have described both affectionately and pejoratively as "culture/cultural wars," "campus wars," "multicultural unrest," or "identity politics"... The remaining examples of student protest concerned funding (including tuition concerns), governance, world affairs, and environmental causes". [26]

While less common, protests similar to campus protests can also happen at secondary-level education facilities, like high schools. [24]

Forms

Brazilian students march against the military rule in Brazil, 1966 Manifestacao estudantil contra a Ditadura Militar 526.tif
Brazilian students march against the military rule in Brazil, 1966
Student syndicalist general strike in Chile CL Society 592- Student protest.jpg
Student syndicalist general strike in Chile

Repertoire of contention in campus protests can take various forms, from peaceful sit-ins, marches, teach-ins, to more active forms that can spread off-campus and include violent clashes with the authorities. [24] [27] Recent research from a quantitative cross-national analysis conducted in 2020 on why student activism most likely takes the form of peaceful protest within the scope of institutional political processes offers an explanation - the emphasis in higher education curriculum to support values, deliberation, and new ideas [28] . Campus protests can also involve faculty members participating in them in addition to students, through protests led by or organized by faculty, rather than students, are a minority. [29] [30] Just like students can worry about being expelled for participation in the protests, some faculty members are concerned about their job security if they were to become involved in such incidents. [31] [25] [32] [33]

A common tactic of student protest is to go on strike (sometimes called a boycott of classes), which occurs when students enrolled at a teaching institution such as a school, college or university refuse to go to class. It is meant to resemble strike action by organized labour. Whereas a normal strike is intended to inflict economic damage to an employer, a student strike is more of a logistical threat: the concerned institution or government cannot afford to have a large number of students simultaneously fail to graduate. The term "student strike" has been criticized as inaccurate by some unions [34] and commentators in the news media. [35] These groups have indicated that they believe the term boycott is more accurate. [34] [35]

Student protests can often spread off-campus and grow in scale, mobilizing off campus activists and organizations, for example the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign led to the city-wide 2014 Hong Kong protests. [36]

One form that student-led activism can take is through the deliberate utilization of posters and slogans. There is research to support the method of analyzing rhetoric and visual demonstrations used in student protests to better understand the motivations and goals of a social movement. [37] Cécile Van De Velde, a sociology professor at the University of Montreal, offers a relevant perspective on protest writings within social movement research. She posits that such rhetoric used on student posters possess an "expressive richness," allowing researchers to better understand the concerns, shared identities, and emotional expressions of those involved in the movement. To help highlight the importance of slogans, Van De Velde discusses the 1960s feminist movement slogan ‘The personal is the political’ which was decisive in the development of the movement itself from the 1960s onward [37] .

Response and aftermath

Victory march by Bangladeshi students after the resignation of Sheikh Hasina in 2024 The victory celebration of Bangladeshi student's one point movement.jpg
Victory march by Bangladeshi students after the resignation of Sheikh Hasina in 2024

Over time, university tolerance of campus protests have grown; while protests occurred before the 20th century they were more likely to be "crushed... with an iron fist... by university leaders" than by mid-20th century, when they have become much more common and tolerated. By the early 21st century, the university response to campus protest in the United States is much more likely to be negotiations, and willingness to yield at least to some of the student demands. [38] There was a resurgence of student activism in the United States in 2015. [39] In Germany, tuition in public universities were abolished in response to student protests between 2006 and 2016. [40] [41]

University response to student activism and campus protests can still be much harsher in less liberal countries like China or Taiwan. [31] In 1980 student protests in South Korea were violently suppressed by the military (the Gwangju uprising). [42] As recently as in 1989 a large scale student demonstration in China that moved off-campus, the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, was met with deadly force. [43]

Examples

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protest</span> Public expression of objection, typically political

A protest is a public act of objection, disapproval or dissent against political advantage. Protests can be thought of as acts of cooperation in which numerous people cooperate by attending, and share the potential costs and risks of doing so. Protests can take many different forms, from individual statements to mass political demonstrations. Protesters may organize a protest as a way of publicly making their opinions heard in an attempt to influence public opinion or government policy, or they may undertake direct action in an attempt to enact desired changes themselves. When protests are part of a systematic and peaceful nonviolent campaign to achieve a particular objective, and involve the use of pressure as well as persuasion, they go beyond mere protest and may be better described as civil resistance or nonviolent resistance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Student activism</span> Work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change

Student activism or campus activism is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. In addition to education, student groups often play central roles in democratization and winning civil rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">West German student movement</span> 1968 anti-government mass protests by West German students

The West German student movement, sometimes called the 1968 movement in West Germany, was a social movement that consisted of mass student protests in West Germany in 1968. Participants in the movement later came to be known as 68ers. The movement was characterized by the protesting students' rejection of traditionalism and of German political authority which included many former Nazi officials. Student unrest had started in 1967 when student Benno Ohnesorg was shot by a policeman during a protest against the visit of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. The movement is considered to have formally started after the attempted assassination of student activist leader Rudi Dutschke, which sparked various protests across West Germany and gave rise to public opposition. The movement created lasting changes in German culture.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War</span> 1965–1973 anti-war movement

Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War began in 1965 with demonstrations against the escalating role of the United States in the war. Over the next several years, these demonstrations grew into a social movement which was incorporated into the broader counterculture of the 1960s.

In 1968, a series of protests at Columbia University in New York City were one among the various student demonstrations that occurred around the globe in that year. The Columbia protests erupted over the spring of that year after students discovered links between the university and the institutional apparatus supporting the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, as well as their concern over an allegedly segregated gymnasium to be constructed in the nearby Morningside Park. The protests resulted in the student occupation of many university buildings and the eventual violent removal of protesters by the New York City Police Department.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicano Movement</span> Social and political movement combating racism in the United States

The Chicano Movement, also referred to as El Movimiento, was a social and political movement in the United States that worked to embrace a Chicano/a identity and worldview that combated structural racism, encouraged cultural revitalization, and achieved community empowerment by rejecting assimilation. Chicanos also expressed solidarity and defined their culture through the development of Chicano art during El Movimiento, and stood firm in preserving their religion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protests of 1968</span> Worldwide escalation of social conflicts

The protests of 1968 comprised a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, which were predominantly characterized by the rise of left-wing politics, anti-war sentiment, civil rights urgency, youth counterculture within the silent and baby boomer generations, and popular rebellions against military states and bureaucracies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kostas Georgakis</span> Greek activist (1948–1970)

Kostas Georgakis was a Greek student studying geology in Italy. On 26 July 1970, while in Italy, he gave an interview denouncing the dictatorial regime of Georgios Papadopoulos. The junta retaliated by attacking him, pressuring his family, and rescinding his military exemption. In a final, fatal, protest in the early hours of 19 September 1970, Georgakis set himself ablaze in Matteotti square in Genoa. He died later that day, an estimated 1,500 people attended his 22 September funeral, with hundreds of anti-junta resistance members leading a demonstration. Melina Mercouri carried a bouquet for the hero of the anti-junta. After being briefly interred in Genoa his remains were transported by ship to Corfu, and on 18 January 1971 he was buried. After the junta collapsed the Government of Greece erected a monument and plaque in his home town of Corfu, another plaque was placed in Matteotti square, and multiple poems have been written in his honor.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Occupation (protest)</span> Type of protest

As an act of protest, occupation is a strategy often used by social movements and other forms of collective social action in order to squat and hold public and symbolic spaces, buildings, critical infrastructure such as entrances to train stations, shopping centers, university buildings, squares, and parks. Occupation attempts to use space as an instrument in order to achieve political and economic change, and to construct counter-spaces in which protesters express their desire to participate in the production and re-imagination of urban space. Often, this is connected to the right to the city, which is the right to inhabit and be in the city as well as to redefine the city in ways that challenge the demands of capitalist accumulation. That is to make public spaces more valuable to the citizens in contrast to favoring the interests of corporate and financial capital.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mexican Movement of 1968</span> Social movement

The Mexican Movement of 1968, also known as the Mexican Student Movement was a social movement composed of a broad coalition of students from Mexico's leading universities that garnered widespread public support for political change in Mexico. A major factor in its emergence publicly was the Mexican government's lavish spending to build Olympic facilities for the 1968 Olympics in Mexico City. The movement demanded greater political freedoms and an end to the authoritarianism of the PRI regime, which had been in power since 1929.

The 1960s Berkeley protests were a series of events at the University of California, Berkeley, and Berkeley, California. Many of these protests were a small part of the larger Free Speech Movement, which had national implications and constituted the onset of the counterculture of the 1960s. These protests were headed under the informal leadership of students Mario Savio, Jack Weinberg, Brian Turner, Bettina Aptheker, Steve Weissman, Art Goldberg, Jackie Goldberg, and others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Students for a Democratic Society</span> American student activist organization (1960–1974)

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a national student activist organization in the United States during the 1960s and was one of the principal representations of the New Left. Disdaining permanent leaders, hierarchical relationships and parliamentary procedure, the founders conceived of the organization as a broad exercise in "participatory democracy". From its launch in 1960 it grew rapidly in the course of the tumultuous decade with over 300 campus chapters and 30,000 supporters recorded nationwide by its last national convention in 1969. The organization splintered at that convention amidst rivalry between factions seeking to impose national leadership and direction, and disputing "revolutionary" positions on, among other issues, the Vietnam War and Black Power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Activism</span> Efforts to make change in society toward a perceived greater good

Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society toward a perceived common good. Forms of activism range from mandate building in a community, petitioning elected officials, running or contributing to a political campaign, preferential patronage of businesses, and demonstrative forms of activism like rallies, street marches, strikes, sit-ins, or hunger strikes.

The Asian American Movement was a sociopolitical movement in which the widespread grassroots efforts of Asian Americans effected racial, social and political change in the U.S., reaching its peak in the late 1960s to mid-1970s. During this period Asian Americans promoted anti-war and anti-imperialist activism, directly opposing what was viewed as an unjust Vietnam war. The American Asian Movement (AAM) differs from previous Asian American activism due to its emphasis on Pan-Asianism and its solidarity with U.S. and international Third World movements such as the Third World Liberation Front.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Climate movement</span> Social movement engaged in climate activism

The climate movement is a global social movement focused on pressuring governments and industry to take action addressing the causes and impacts of climate change. Citizens and environmental non-profit organizations have engaged in significant climate activism since the late 1980s and early 1990s, as they sought to influence the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Climate activism has become increasingly prominent over time, gaining significant momentum during the 2009 Copenhagen Summit and particularly following the signing of the Paris Agreement in 2016.

Student activism in the Philippines from 1965 to 1972 played a key role in the events which led to Ferdinand Marcos' declaration of Martial Law in 1972, and the Marcos regime's eventual downfall during the events of the People Power Revolution of 1986.

Operation McGill français was a large street demonstration in Montréal during the Quiet Revolution. Though comprising a range of trade unionists, Quebec nationalists, students and other leftists raising many different demands, the protest's key objective was for McGill University to become a French-speaking educational institution. The demonstration took place in Montreal on March 28, 1969 in the midst of Quebec's Quiet Revolution. On this day, approximately 10,000–15,000 protesters, gathered and walked down Sherbrooke street towards the Roddick Gates calling for McGill University to become Francophone, along with pro-worker and nationalist demands. These protesters held signs that read slogans such as "McGill aux Québécois!" and "McGill aux travailleurs", which loosely translates to "McGill to Quebeckers" and "McGill to workers" respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1968–1969 Japanese university protests</span> Student protests in Japan

In 1968 and 1969, student protests at several Japanese universities ultimately forced the closure of campuses across Japan. Known as daigaku funsō or daigaku tōsō, the protests were part of the worldwide protest cycle in 1968 and the late-1960s Japanese protest cycle, including the Anpo protests of 1970 and the struggle against the construction of Narita Airport. Students demonstrated initially against practical issues in universities and eventually formed the Zenkyōtō in mid-1968 to organize themselves. The Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management allowed for the dispersal of protesters in 1969.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian Student Movement</span> 1960–1974 Marxist-Leninist student movement in Ethiopia

The Ethiopian Student Movement was a period of radical Marxist–Leninist student activism and movement in Ethiopia from the mid-1960s to the 1974 revolution. The first demonstration occurred in 1965 by university student, led by Marxist–Leninist motivation chanting "Land to the Tiller" and "Is poverty a crime?". The student uprisings continued in 1966 until 1969. The movement also called for the abolition of monarchy under Emperor Haile Selassie and feudalism in Ethiopia.

References

  1. ↑ "Jaroslava Moserova – remembering Jan Palach – Radio Prague". Radio.cz. 21 January 2003. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  2. ↑ Alan Levy (29 September 2015). So Many Heroes. Permanent Press (ORD). p. 560. ISBN   978-1-5040-2334-4.
  3. ↑ "Story of Kostas in Corfu City Hall website". Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 2010-03-17. During the years of dictatorship in Greece (1967–1974) many Corfiots were enlisted in resistance groups, but the case of Kostas Georgakis is unique in the whole of Greece. The 22-year-old Corfiot student of geology with an act of self-sacrifice and a spirit of dynamic protest, which could not bear to see Greece under the military regime, set himself on fire the first morning hours of 19th September 1970 in the Matteoti Sq. in the Italian city of Genoa. For security reasons his body was buried in Corfu four months later, his self-sacrifice though, a rare event for that time, caused international sensation and was considered one of the most important resistance acts of that period. Later the Hellenic State and his homeland Corfu honoured the man, who with his life became a symbol of resistance and patriotism, herald of the students' sacrifice in Polytechnion in 1973.
  4. ↑ Annamaria Rivera (2012). Il fuoco della rivolta. Torce umane dal Maghreb all'Europa. EDIZIONI DEDALO. p. 118. ISBN   978-88-220-6322-9 . Retrieved 15 March 2013. geologia Kostas Georgakis, op- positore greco di cultura laica, esasperato dalle minacce e dalle rappresaglie subite da agenti dei servizi segreti greci in Italia, s'im- molò in piazza Matteotti per protestare contro la giunta dei Co- lonnelli.
  5. ↑ Helen Vlachos (1972). Griechenland, Dokumentation einer Diktatur. Jugend und Volk. ISBN   978-3-7141-7415-1 . Retrieved 15 March 2013. In memoriam Kostas Georgakis Er starb für die Freiheit Griechenlands so wie Jan Palach für die der Tschechoslowakei Lieber Vater, verzeih mir diese Tat und weine nicht. Dein Sohn ist kein Held, er ist ein Mann wie alle anderen, vielleicht ..
  6. ↑ Giovanni Pattavina; Oriana Fallaci (1984). Alekos Panagulis, il rivoluzionario don Chisciotte di Oriana Fallaci: saggio politico-letterario. Edizioni italiane di letteratura e scienze. p. 211. Retrieved 10 April 2013. no di questi fu lo studente greco Kostas Georgakis, un ragazzo di 22 anni che il 29 settembre 1970 si bruciò vivo a Genova per protestare contro la soppressione della libertà in Grecia. La sera del suo sacrificio riaccompagnò a casa la ...
  7. ↑ Rivisteria. 2000. p. 119. Retrieved 10 April 2013. Il caso Kostas Georgakis. Pag.250, L.25000. ISBN   88-8163-217-9. Erga, Genova. Il suicidio del giovane studente greco Kostas Georgakis in sacrificio alla propria patria nel nome di libertà e democrazia apre una finestra su trent'anni di storia ...
  8. ↑ Kostis Kornetis (15 November 2013). Children of the Dictatorship: Student Resistance, Cultural Politics and the "Long 1960s" in Greece. Berghahn Books. pp. 66–67. ISBN   978-1-78238-001-6. In 1971 at the Piazza Matteotti in Genova, the young student Kostas Georgakis set himself ablaze in protest against the ... a Panteios student and presentday political scientist, recalls how he suffered when Georgakis died, being inspired by his ...
  9. ↑ Joseph Lynch (16 December 2013). The Medieval Church: A Brief History. Routledge. pp. 254–. ISBN   978-1-317-87053-1.
  10. ↑ Benjamin McKie Rastall (1905). The Cripple Creek strike of 1893. Colorado College. pp. 47–49.
  11. ↑ Hugh Seton-Watson (24 February 2017). The Decline of Imperial Russia: 1855–1914. Taylor & Francis. pp. 144–. ISBN   978-1-315-40516-2.
  12. ↑ Davis, Sarajanee. "Black Student Activism in the 1920s and 1930s". www.ncpedia.org. NCpedia. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  13. ↑ Alford, James. "Training the Hands, Head, and Heart: Student Protest and Acitivism at Hampton Institute During the 1920s". ucincinnatipress.manifoldapp.org. University of Cincinnati Press. Retrieved 2 May 2024.
  14. ↑ Emanuel Melzer (31 December 1997). No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry 1935–1939. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 75. ISBN   978-0-87820-141-9.
  15. ↑ Michael Staudenmaier (2012). Truth and Revolution: A History of the Sojourner Truth Organization, 1969–1986. AK Press. pp. 42–. ISBN   978-1-84935-097-6.
  16. ↑ Beate Kutschke; Barley Norton (25 April 2013). Music and Protest in 1968. Cambridge University Press. pp. 216–. ISBN   978-1-107-00732-1.
  17. ↑ Robert Wuthnow (2012). Red State Religion: Faith and Politics in America's Heartland. Princeton University Press. p. 248. ISBN   978-0-691-15055-0.
  18. ↑ Gerard J.De Groot (25 September 2014). Student Protest: The Sixties and After. Taylor & Francis. pp. 227–. ISBN   978-1-317-88048-6.
  19. ↑ Heldman, Caroline; Ackerman, Alissa; Breckenridge-Jackson, Ian (2018). The new campus anti-rape movement: internet activism and social justice. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN   978-1-4985-5402-2.
  20. ↑ Bovill, Helen; Mcmahon, Sarah; Demers, Jennifer; Banyard, Victoria; Carrasco, Vlad; Keep, Louise (2021-05-01). "How does student activism drive cultural campus change in the UK and US regarding sexual violence on campus?". Critical Social Policy. 41 (2): 165–187. doi:10.1177/0261018320913967. ISSN   0261-0183.
  21. ↑ Goldstein, Judy (2024-04-18). "In Focus: The first 24 hours of the 'Gaza Solidarity Encampment'". Columbia Daily Spectator. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  22. ↑ Yerushalmy, Jonathan; Livingstone, Helen; Salam, Erum (2 May 2024). "Where are the US college campus protests and what is happening?". www.theguardian.com. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  23. ↑ "What do pro-Palestinian student protesters at US universities want?". BBC News. 2024-04-26. Retrieved 2024-05-27.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Clarke, James W.; Egan, Joseph (1972-05-01). "Social and Political Dimensions of Campus Protest Activity". The Journal of Politics. 34 (2): 500–523. doi:10.2307/2129365. ISSN   0022-3816. JSTOR   2129365. S2CID   153787448.
  25. 1 2 Jonathan Zimmerman (8 August 2016). Campus Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press. pp. 21–22. ISBN   978-0-19-062741-6.
  26. ↑ Rhoads, Robert A. (1998-11-01). "Student Protest and Multicultural Reform". The Journal of Higher Education. 69 (6): 621–646. doi:10.1080/00221546.1998.11780745. ISSN   0022-1546.
  27. ↑ Rob Kirkpatrick (24 January 2011). 1969: The Year Everything Changed. Skyhorse Publishing Inc. pp. 9–. ISBN   978-1-61608-055-6.
  28. ↑ Ustyuzhanin, Vadim V; Sawyer, Patrick S; Korotayev, Andrey V (2023-08-01). "Students and protests: A quantitative cross-national analysis". International Journal of Comparative Sociology. 64 (4): 375–401. doi:10.1177/00207152221136042. ISSN   0020-7152.
  29. ↑ J. Fredericks Volkwein (1968). Relationship of college student protest and participation in policy-making to institutional characteristics. Cornell Univ. p. 65.
  30. ↑ Bruce L.R. Smith (18 June 1975). The New Political Economy: The Public Use of the Private Sector. Palgrave Macmillan UK. p. 137. ISBN   978-1-349-02042-3.
  31. 1 2 Teresa Wright (2001). The Perils of Protest: State Repression and Student Activism in China and Taiwan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 100. ISBN   978-0-8248-2401-3.
  32. ↑ Astin, Alexander W.; Bayer, Alan E. (1971-04-01). "Antecedents and Consequents of Disruptive Campus Protests". Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance. 4 (1): 18–30. doi:10.1080/00256307.1971.12022476. ISSN   0025-6307.
  33. ↑ Jeffrey A. Turner (2010). Sitting in and Speaking Out: Student Movements in the American South, 1960-1970. University of Georgia Press. p. 68. ISBN   978-0-8203-3593-3.
  34. 1 2 "CUPFA Response to Student Class Boycott: March 3, 2012". Concordia University Part Time Faculty Association. 2012-03-03. Retrieved 16 May 2012.
  35. 1 2 Deck, Larry (2012-04-15). "Student "Strike" Is Losing Steam". Le Québécois Libre (299). ISSN   1707-0309.
  36. ↑ Jason Luger; Julie Ren (18 May 2017). Art and the City: Worlding the Discussion Through a Critical Artscape. Taylor & Francis. pp. 47–. ISBN   978-1-315-30302-4.
  37. 1 2 Van De Velde, Cécile (2024-09-02). "The power of slogans: using protest writings in social movement research". Social Movement Studies. 23 (5): 569–588. doi: 10.1080/14742837.2022.2084065 . ISSN   1474-2837.
  38. ↑ Jonathan Zimmerman (8 August 2016). Campus Politics: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN   978-0-19-062741-6.
  39. ↑ Wong, Alia (2015-05-21). "Student Activism Is Making a Comeback". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2020-04-24.
  40. ↑ Türkoğlu, Didem (2019-09-12). "Student protests and organised labour: Developing a research agenda for mobilisation in late neoliberalism". Current Sociology. 67 (7): 997–1017. doi:10.1177/0011392119865768. ISSN   0011-3921. S2CID   203453013.
  41. ↑ "Germany scraps tuition fees after mass student protests cause shift in public opinion". International Viewpoint - online socialist magazine. Retrieved 2024-05-01.
  42. ↑ Meredith Leigh Weiss; Edward Aspinall (2012). Student Activism in Asia: Between Protest and Powerlessness. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 134–. ISBN   978-0-8166-7969-0.
  43. ↑ Cheng, Kris (2017-12-21). "Declassified: Chinese official said at least 10,000 civilians died in 1989 Tiananmen massacre, documents show". Hong Kong Free Press HKFP. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
  44. ↑ "Kids' strike over school tests". Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist–Leninist) . 1 June 2016.
  45. ↑ "HK students escalate pro-democracy protest". BBC News. bbc.co.uk. 2014-09-27. Retrieved 2014-09-27.
  46. ↑ "Spain protest over riot police beatings in Valencia". BBC News. Bbc.co.uk. 2012-02-21. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
  47. ↑ Tremlett, Giles (February 21, 2012). "Valencia police and students clash over education cuts". The Guardian.
  48. ↑ "Thousands take to Valencia streets in protest against police violence and education cuts". El País. Elpais.com. 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
  49. ↑ "Spanish police clash violently with students: "I don't understand how the situation degenerated so fast"". The FRANCE 24 Observers. Observers.france24.com. 2012-02-22. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
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