Sue[a] (stylized: SUE), officially designated FMNH PR 2081, is one of the largest,[b] most extensive, and best preserved Tyrannosaurus rexfossils ever found, at over 90 percent recovered by bulk.[4]
However, a flat tire was discovered on their truck before the group could depart on August 12.[7][8] While the rest of the group went into town to repair the truck, Sue Hendrickson decided to explore the nearby cliffs that the group had not checked. As she was walking along the base of a cliff, she discovered some small pieces of bone.
She looked above her to see where the bones had originated, and observed larger bones protruding from the wall of the cliff. She returned to camp with two small pieces of the bones and reported the discovery to the president of the Black Hills Institute, Peter Larson.[9] He determined that the bones were from a T.rex by their distinctive contour and texture. Later, closer examination of the site showed many visible bones above the ground and some articulated vertebrae.[10][pageneeded]
Highlighted green are the real fossilized bones. The real skull is displayed separately.
The crew ordered extra plaster and, although some of the crew had to depart, Hendrickson and a few other workers began to uncover the bones. The group was excited, as it was evident that much of the dinosaur had been preserved. Previously discovered T.rex skeletons were usually missing over half of their bones.[10]
It was later determined that Sue was a record 90 percent complete by bulk,[11] and 73 percent complete counting the elements.[12] Of the 360 known T.rex bones, around 250 have been recovered.[1] Scientists believe that this specimen was covered by water and mud soon after its death, which prevented other animals from carrying away the bones.[13][pageneeded] Additionally, the rushing water mixed the skeleton together.
When the fossil was found, the hip bones were above the skull and the leg bones were intertwined with the ribs. The large size and the excellent condition of the bones were also surprising. The skull was 1,394mm (54.9in) long, and most of the teeth were still intact. After the group completed excavating the bones, each block was covered in burlap and coated in plaster, followed by a transfer to the offices of the Black Hills Institute, where they began to clean the bones.
Dispute and auction
Sue's skull
Soon after the fossil was found, a dispute arose over legal ownership. The Black Hills Institute had obtained permission from the owner of the land, Maurice Williams, to excavate and remove the skeleton, and had paid Williams US$5,000 for the remains.[14]
Williams later claimed that the money had not been for the sale of the fossil and that he had only allowed Larson to remove and clean the fossil for a later sale.[10][pageneeded] Williams was a member of the Sioux tribe, and the tribe claimed the bones belonged to them. However, the property where the fossil had been found was held in trust by the United States Department of the Interior.
In 1992, the FBI and the South Dakota National Guard raided the site where the Black Hills Institute had been cleaning the bones and seized the fossil,[15] charging Larson on 158 points. The government transferred the remains to the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, where the skeleton was stored until the penal and civil legal disputes were settled. The United States Senate voted to not confirm the appointment of Kevin Schieffer as United States Attorney for the District of South Dakota after his controversial handling of the penal case.
In 1996, Larson was sentenced to a two-year prison sentence involving customs violations unrelated to the T.rex. After a lengthy civil case, the court decreed that Maurice Williams retained ownership.[16] Williams then decided to sell the remains and contracted with Sotheby's to auction the specimen.
Many at the time worried that the fossil would end up in a private collection where people would not be able to observe it.[17][18]The Field Museum in Chicago was also concerned about this possibility, and decided to attempt to purchase it. However, the organization realized that they might have had difficulty securing funding and requested that companies and private citizens provide financial support. The California State University system, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, McDonald's, Ronald McDonald House Charities, and individual donors agreed to assist in purchasing Sue for the Field Museum.
The Field Museum hired a specialized moving company with experience in transporting delicate items to move the bones to Chicago. The truck arrived at the museum in October 1997. Two new research laboratories funded by McDonald's were created and staffed by Field Museum preparators whose job was to slowly and carefully remove all the rock, or "matrix", from the bones. One preparation lab was at the Field Museum itself, the other was at the newly opened Animal Kingdom in Disney World in Orlando. Millions of visitors observed the preparation of Sue's bones through glass windows in both labs. Footage of the work was also put on the museum's website. Several of the fossil's bones had never been discovered, so preparators produced models of the missing bones from plastic to complete the exhibit. The modeled bones were colored in a purplish hue so that visitors could observe which bones were real and which bones were plastic. The preparators also poured molds of each bone. All the molds were sent to a company outside Toronto to be cast in hollow plastic. The Field Museum kept one set of disarticulated casts in its research collection. The other sets were incorporated into mounted cast skeletons. One set of the casts was sent to Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida to be presented for public display. Two other mounted casts were placed into a traveling tour that was sponsored by the McDonald's Corporation.[13][pageneeded]
Once the preparators finished removing the matrix from each bone, it was sent to the museum's photographer who made high-quality photographs. From there, the museum's paleontologists began the study of the skeleton. In addition to photographing and studying each bone, the research staff also arranged for CT scanning of select bones. The skull was too large to fit into a medical CT scanner, so Boeing's Rocketdyne laboratory in California agreed to let the museum use their CT scanner that was normally used to inspect space shuttle parts.[22]
Life and death
Bone damage
Skeletal reconstruction of Sue
Close examination of the bones revealed that Sue was 28 years old at the time of death—the oldest known T.rex discovered until Trix was unearthed in 2013.
During its life, Sue suffered from several injuries,[13] including a damaged right shoulder blade, a torn tendon in the right arm most likely due to a struggle with prey, and three broken ribs.[23] This damage subsequently healed (though one rib healed into two separate pieces), indicating Sue survived the incident.
Sue also suffered numerous other health afflictions. The fossil’s left fibula is twice the diameter of the right one, likely the result of an infection. Originally the deformity was believed to be from a healed fracture, before later CT scans showed none.[citation needed] Both the misshapen left fibula and the fused c26 and c27 caudal vertebrae show signs consistent with the bone infection osteomyelitis.[24] Several of Sue’s tail vertebrae are fused in a pattern typical of arthritis due to injury. The animal is also believed to have suffered from gout.[25]
Several holes in the front of Sue’s skull were originally thought to be either from an infection or bite marks by another tyrannosaur. A 2009 study found these holes to be areas of parasitic infection, possibly from an infestation of an ancestral form of Trichomonas gallinae, a protozoan parasite that infests birds and ultimately leads to death by starvation due to internal swelling of the neck.[26][27] Damage to the back end of the skull was interpreted early on as a fatal bite wound, but subsequent study by Field Museum paleontologists found no bite marks. The distortion and breakage seen in some of the bones in the back of the skull was likely caused by post-mortem trampling.[citation needed]
Sue’s cause of death is ultimately unknown.[10][pageneeded] The dinosaur died in a seasonal stream bed, which washed away some small bones as it rapidly covered the remains with sediment, ultimately leading to fossilization.[28]
Size
"Sue" and other specimens to scale with a human
Sue is approximately 12.3–12.4 meters (40.4–40.7ft) long along the centra, and stands 3.66–3.96 meters (12–13ft) tall at the hips.[1] Sue is one of the largest Tyrannosaurus specimens, only possibly exceeded by Scotty (RSM P2523.8).[2]
Sue possesses the longest known gastralium (belly rib) among theropods, measuring about 90 centimeters (3.0ft). Sue also has the longest known pubis currently measured among the Cretaceous theropods, measuring roughly 136 centimeters (4.46ft).
Weight
Sue has been estimated to have weighed between 8.4–14 metric tons (9.26–15.4 short tons) when living, as of 2018.[29][30][31][32] In 2011, other weight estimates were between 9.5–18.5 metric tons (10.5–20.4 short tons), although the authors stated that their upper and lower estimates were based on models with wide possible errors, and that they "consider them [these extremes] to be too skinny, too fat, or too disproportionate".[33] A further estimate portrayed a leaner build, placing the specimen at 8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons),[29] while older estimates have placed this specimen at 5.7–6.4 metric tons (6.3–7.1 short tons) in weight.[34][35]
Displayed separately from the whole body, the skull weighs 272kg (600lb).[35][36]
Exhibition
Sue as originally mounted in Stanley Field Hall
Following preparation, photography, and study, the bones were sent to New Jersey[when?] where work began on making the mount. Sue’s mount consists of a bent steel frame which supports each bone safely, displaying the skeleton fully articulated as it was in life.
The dinosaur’s real skull was not incorporated into the mounted display, as subsequent study would be difficult with the head 4m (13ft) off the ground. Additionally, parts of the skull had been crushed and broken and thus appeared distorted.[37] The museum made a cast of the skull, and altered this cast to remove the distortions, thus approximating what the original undistorted skull may have looked like. The cast skull was also lighter, allowing it to be displayed on the mount without the use of a steel upright under the head. The original skull was exhibited in a separate case, which could be opened to allow researchers access for study.
Originally, the Field Museum had plans to incorporate Sue into their preexisting dinosaur exhibit on the second floor, but had little left in their budget to do so after purchasing it. Instead, the T.rex was put on display in the building’s main hall directly in front of the museum’s north entrance, where it would remain for the next 18 years.[38]
Sue was unveiled on May 17, 2000, attracting over 10,000 visitors that day.[39]John Gurche, a paleoartist, painted a mural of a Tyrannosaurus for the exhibit.[40]
New suite (2019)
With the correct furcula in place, the shoulders are lowered and meet in the middle of the chest– bringing the arms closer to the ground.
In early 2018, Sue was dismantled and moved to its own gallery on the museum’s upper level, connected to the Evolving Planet exhibit and the Elizabeth Morse Genius Hall of Dinosaurs.[42] The new exhibit opened on December 21, 2018.[43]
The 5,100 square-foot exhibit includes animated videos of Sue that are projected in 6K onto nine-foot tall panes behind its skeleton.[44][37][45] Atlantic Productions worked with the Field Museum to create multiple animated sequences, including Sue scavenging an Ankylosaurus carcass, battling a Triceratops, and hunting an Edmontosaurus.[45]
According to the Field Museum's associate curator of dinosaurs Pete Makovicky, the new suite was designed to accentuate the size and stature of Sue, and although smaller, the exhibit allows for a more intimate display of the T.rex,[46] along with the skull of a Triceratops and other Cretaceous period artifacts, such as shark teeth and pachycephalosaurid bones.
Sue’s reassembled display is intended to reflect the newest scientific theories, including the proper furcula and attachment of the gastralia to the rest of the skeleton.[47][48][49]
Sue's real skull is kept in a separate display case in the exhibition, allowing it to be removed for study as required.[37][50][45]
Tyrannosaurus imperator debate
In a 2022 study, Gregory S. Paul and colleagues argued that Tyrannosaurus rex, as traditionally understood, actually represents three species: the type species Tyrannosaurus rex, and two new species: T.imperator (meaning "tyrant lizard emperor") and T.regina (meaning "tyrant lizard queen"). The holotype of the former (T.imperator) is the Sue specimen, and the holotype of the latter (T.regina) is Wankel rex. Paul interpreted Sue to represent an earlier population of Tyrannosaurus, which speciated into T.rex and T.regina.[51]
However, several other leading paleontologists, including Stephen Brusatte, Thomas Carr, Thomas Holtz, David Hone, Jingmai O'Connor, and Lindsay Zanno, criticized the study or expressed skepticism of its conclusions when approached by various media outlets for comment.[52][53][54] Their criticism was subsequently published in a technical paper.[55] Holtz remarked that, even if Tyrannosaurus imperator represented a distinct species from Tyrannosaurus rex, it may represent the same species as Nanotyrannus lancensis and would need to be called Tyrannosaurus lancensis. O'Connor, a curator at the Field Museum, where the T.imperator holotype Sue is displayed, regarded the new species as too poorly supported to justify modifying the exhibit signs.[52]
A 1997 episode of the PBS show Nova, "Curse of the T.Rex", discussed the history of the discovery and ensuing legal challenges.[28][56]
The 1998 4-episode television special Dinosaurs: Inside and Out extensively discussed Sue, mentioning the now-disproven theory that it was killed by a bite to the back of the head by another T.rex.[citation needed]
Sue was featured in the Dresden Files book series book 7, Dead Beat, as being part of the Field Museum exhibits; the central character later uses Sue to ride into battle as a reanimated zombie T.rex.[58]
Sue’s discovery and the subsequent legal battles were featured in Director Todd Miller's documentary Dinosaur 13, which premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival[59] and was subsequently released in theaters and on DVD.
In 2015, an episode of NPR's Planet Money discussed the acquisition of Sue from a financial and legal perspective.[60]
Sue is personified through an official Twitter account and in Field Museum press releases. The character uses the singular they pronoun, in acknowledgement of the fossil specimen’s undetermined sex.[61][62] Sue takes on a humorous, sarcastic tone in their online presence, referring to themself as a “murderbird”,[47] commenting on current events, and joking about eating museum guests.[63]
Albertosaurus is a genus of large tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in northwestern North America during the early to middle Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period, about 71 million years ago. The type species, A. sarcophagus, was apparently restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named, although an indeterminate species has been discovered in the Corral de Enmedio and Packard Formations of Mexico. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus and some recognize Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species.
Tyrannosaurus is a genus of large theropod dinosaur. The type species Tyrannosaurus rex, often shortened to T. rex or colloquially T-Rex, is one of the best represented theropods. It lived throughout what is now western North America, on what was then an island continent known as Laramidia. Tyrannosaurus had a much wider range than other tyrannosaurids. Fossils are found in a variety of rock formations dating to the latest Campanian-Maastrichtian ages of the late Cretaceous period, 72.7 to 66 million years ago. It was the last known member of the tyrannosaurids and among the last non-avian dinosaurs to exist before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event.
Daspletosaurus is a genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur that lived in Laramidia between about 78 and 74.4 million years ago, during the Late Cretaceous Period. The genus Daspletosaurus contains three named species. Fossils of the earlier type species, D. torosus, have been found in Alberta, while fossils of a later species, D. horneri, have been found only in Montana. D. wilsoni has been suggested as an intermediate species between D. torosus and D. horneri that evolved through anagenesis, but this theory has been disputed by other researchers.
Giganotosaurus is a genus of large theropod dinosaur that lived in what is now Argentina, during the early Cenomanian age of the Late Cretaceous period, approximately 99.6 to 95 million years ago. The holotype specimen was discovered in the Candeleros Formation of Patagonia in 1993 and is almost 70% complete. The animal was named Giganotosaurus carolinii in 1995; the genus name translates to "giant southern lizard", and the specific name honors the discoverer, Ruben Carolini. A dentary bone, a tooth, and some tracks, discovered before the holotype, were later assigned to this animal. The genus attracted much interest and became part of a scientific debate about the maximum sizes of theropod dinosaurs.
Gorgosaurus is a genus of tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in western North America during the Late Cretaceous Period (Campanian), between about 76.5 and 75 million years ago. Fossil remains have been found in the Canadian province of Alberta and the U.S. state of Montana. Paleontologists recognize only the type species, G. libratus, although other species have been erroneously referred to the genus.
Museum of the Rockies is a museum in Bozeman, Montana. Originally affiliated with Montana State University in Bozeman, and now also, the Smithsonian Institution. The museum is largely known for its Paleontological collections as well as having the largest collection of North American Dinosaur fossils in the United States. They also possess the largest Tyrannosaurus skull ever discovered, as well as the thigh bone of a Tyrannosaurus rex that contains soft-tissue remains. The museum is part of the Montana Dinosaur Trail and is Montana's official repository for Paleontological specimens.
The Burpee Museum of Natural History is located along the Rock River in downtown Rockford, Illinois, United States, at 737 North Main Street.
Peter Lars Larson is an American fossil dealer who is head of the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research, which specialises in the excavation and preparation of fossils. He led the team that excavated "Sue", one of the largest and most complete specimens of Tyrannosaurus rex, which was the subject of a legal dispute resulting in its seizure and public auction. In 1996, Larson was convicted of customs violations related to failing to declare money he had brought from overseas, and served 18 months in prison.
The Geological Museum of China, built in 1916, is a geological museum, boasting 200 thousand specimens.
"Stan", also known by its inventory number BHI 3033, is a Tyrannosaurus rex fossil found in the Hell Creek Formation in South Dakota, just outside of Buffalo in 1987, and excavated in 1992. It is the fifth most complete T. rex fossil discovered to date, at more than 70% bulk. In October 2020, the fossil was sold for $31.8 million at auction, making it at the time the most expensive dinosaur specimen and fossil ever sold. This record stood until July 2024, when the Stegosaurus fossil Apex sold at auction for $44.6 million. In March 2022, Abu Dhabi's Department of Culture and Tourism stated that they had acquired Stan and were planning on displaying the fossil at a new museum of natural history scheduled to open in 2025.
Tyrannosaurus is one of the most iconic dinosaurs and is known from numerous specimens, some of which have individually acquired notability due to their scientific significance and media coverage.
This timeline of tyrannosaur research is a chronological listing of events in the history of paleontology focused on the tyrannosaurs, a group of predatory theropod dinosaurs that began as small, long-armed bird-like creatures with elaborate cranial ornamentation but achieved apex predator status during the Late Cretaceous as their arms shrank and body size expanded. Although formally trained scientists did not begin to study tyrannosaur fossils until the mid-19th century, these remains may have been discovered by Native Americans and interpreted through a mythological lens. The Montana Crow tradition about thunder birds with two claws on their feet may have been inspired by isolated tyrannosaurid forelimbs found locally. Other legends possibly inspired by tyrannosaur remains include Cheyenne stories about a mythical creature called the Ahke, and Delaware stories about smoking the bones of ancient monsters to have wishes granted.
Gualicho is a genus of theropod dinosaur. The type species is Gualicho shinyae. It lived in what is now northern Patagonia, on what was then a South American island continent split off from the supercontinent Gondwana. The fossils were found in the Huincul Formation, dating to the late Cenomanian-early Turonian age of the upper Cretaceous Period, around 91 million years ago.
Trix is a Tyrannosaurus rex specimen excavated in 2013 in Montana, United States by a team of paleontologists from the Naturalis Biodiversity Center in Leiden, the Netherlands and Black Hills institute of Geological Research in South Dakota. This Tyrannosaurus, over thirty years old – the oldest known Tyrannosaurus specimen – lived about 67 million years ago. It is considered to be the third most complete Tyrannosaurus found, with between 78% and 80% of its bone volume recovered. The specimen was named Trix after the former Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands. It is one of only two Tyrannosaurus specimens on permanent exhibit in mainland Europe. The other one is a specimen named Tristan on exhibit at the Natural History Museum of Berlin.
The Dueling Dinosaurs or Montana Dueling Dinosaurs is a fossil specimen originating from the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. It consists of the fossilized skeletons of a tyrannosaur and a Triceratops horridus entangled with one another and entombed in sandstone. This is identical to the Fighting Dinosaurs, an 80-million-year-old specimen found in 1971 Mongolia where a Velociraptor and Protoceratops were locked in battle and preserved. The "dueling" inference comes from the numerous injuries sustained by both dinosaurs, including a tooth from the tyrannosaur embedded within the Triceratops, although it is not known whether they were actually buried fighting one another. Tyrannosaurus rex was a 40 ft. long carnivore weighing 10 tons and ruled the Cretaceous period with strong jaws and sharp teeth to tear up to 500 pounds of flesh and bone in a single bite. Triceratops was bigger than an elephant and was notified by a rounded skull with horns and a bony frill to intimidate and defend against predators. Despite the scientific importance of the specimen, it remained obscure for decades due to a lengthy legal dispute over property rights to the specimen, which has since been resolved. The fossil is in the possession of and being studied by the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, where it went on display in 2024.
Titus is an obsidian black skeleton of a Tyrannosaurus rex discovered in the Hell Creek Formation, Montana, United States in 2014 and excavated in 2018.
Scotty is the nickname for the Tyrannosaurus rex fossil, catalogued as RSM P2523.8, that was discovered in Saskatchewan, Canada in 1991. The fossilised remains were painstakingly removed, almost completely by hand, over two decades from the rock in which they were embedded. When the preparation was complete in 2011, a ~65% complete T. rex skeleton was revealed.
Victoria is a specimen of the species Tyrannosaurus rex recognized for its well-preserved and nearly complete skeleton, making it the second most complete T. rex finds in recent history. Victoria got her name in the lab in Victoria, British Columbia, where it was studied and restored.
↑ Larson, P (2008). "One Hundred Years of Tyrannosaurus rex: The Skeletons". In Larson; Carpenter (eds.). Tyrannosaurus rex: The Tyrant King. Indiana University Press.[pageneeded]
1 2 3 Relf, Pat (2000). A Dinosaur Named Sue: The Story of the Colossal Fossil.[pageneeded]
↑ Rothschild, B.; Tanke, D. H.; Ford, T. L. (2001). "Theropod stress fractures and tendon avulsions as a clue to activity". In Tanke, D. H.; Carpenter, K. (eds.). Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press. pp.331–336.
↑ Carr T.D., Napoli J.G., Brusatte S.L., Holtz T.R., Hone D.W.E., Williamson T.E. & Zanno L.E. (2022). "Insufficient Evidence for Multiple Species of Tyrannosaurus in the Latest Cretaceous of North America: A Comment on "The Tyrant Lizard King, Queen and Emperor: Multiple Lines of Morphological and Stratigraphic Evidence Support Subtle Evolution and Probable Speciation Within the North American Genus Tyrannosaurus"”. Evolutionary Biology49(3): p. 314-341: doi.org/10.1007/s11692-022-09573-1
Brochu, Christopher A. (2003). "Osteology of Tyrannosaurus Rex: Insights from a nearly complete Skeleton and High-Resolution Computed Tomographic Analysis of the Skull". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (4, Supplement): 1–138. Bibcode:2003JVPal..22S...1B. doi:10.1080/02724634.2003.10010947. S2CID84716109.
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