Surveillance capitalism

Last updated

Surveillance capitalism is a concept in political economics which denotes the widespread collection and commodification of personal data by corporations. This phenomenon is distinct from government surveillance, although the two can be mutually reinforming. The concept of surveillance capitalism, as described by Shoshana Zuboff, is driven by a profit-making incentive, and arose as advertising companies, led by Google's AdWords, saw the possibilities of using personal data to target consumers more precisely. [1]

Contents

Increased data collection may have various benefits for individuals and society, such as self-optimization (the quantified self), [2] societal optimizations (e.g., by smart cities) and optimized services (including various web applications). However, as capitalism focuses on expanding the proportion of social life that is open to data collection and data processing, [2] this can have significant implications for vulnerability and control of society, as well as for privacy.

The economic pressures of capitalism are driving the intensification of online connection and monitoring, with spaces of social life opening up to saturation by corporate actors, directed at making profits and/or regulating behavior. Therefore, personal data points increased in value after the possibilities of targeted advertising were known. [3] As a result, the increasing price of data has limited access to the purchase of personal data points to the richest in society. [4]

Background

Shoshana Zuboff writes that "analysing massive data sets began as a way to reduce uncertainty by discovering the probabilities of future patterns in the behavior of people and systems". [5] In 2014, Vincent Mosco referred to the marketing of information about customers and subscribers to advertisers as surveillance capitalism and made note of the surveillance state alongside it. [6] Christian Fuchs found that the surveillance state fuses with surveillance capitalism. [7]

Similarly, Zuboff informs that the issue is further complicated by highly invisible collaborative arrangements with state security apparatuses. According to Trebor Scholz, companies recruit people as informants for this type of capitalism. [8] Zuboff contrasts the mass production of industrial capitalism with surveillance capitalism, where the former was interdependent with its populations, who were its consumers and employees, and the latter preys on dependent populations, who are neither its consumers nor its employees and largely ignorant of its procedures. [9]

Their research shows that the capitalist addition to the analysis of massive amounts of data has taken its original purpose in an unexpected direction. [1] Surveillance has been changing power structures in the information economy, potentially shifting the balance of power further from nation-states and towards large corporations employing the surveillance capitalist logic. [10]

Zuboff notes that surveillance capitalism extends beyond the conventional institutional terrain of the private firm, accumulating not only surveillance assets and capital but also rights, and operating without meaningful mechanisms of consent. [9] In other words, analysing massive data sets was at some point not only executed by the state apparatuses but also companies. Zuboff claims that both Google and Facebook have invented surveillance capitalism and translated it into "a new logic of accumulation". [1] [11] [12]

This mutation resulted in both companies collecting very large numbers of data points about their users, with the core purpose of making a profit. By selling these data points to external users (particularly advertisers), it has become an economic mechanism. The combination of the analysis of massive data sets and the use of these data sets as a market mechanism has shaped the concept of surveillance capitalism. Surveillance capitalism has been heralded as the successor to neoliberalism. [13] [14]

Oliver Stone, creator of the film Snowden , pointed to the location-based game Pokémon Go as the "latest sign of the emerging phenomenon and demonstration of surveillance capitalism". Stone criticized that the location of its users was used not only for game purposes, but also to retrieve more information about its players. By tracking users' locations, the game collected far more information than just users' names and locations: "it can access the contents of your USB storage, your accounts, photographs, network connections, and phone activities, and can even activate your phone, when it is in standby mode". This data can then be analysed and commodified by companies such as Google (which significantly invested in the game's development) to improve the effectiveness of targeted advertisement. [15] [16]

Another aspect of surveillance capitalism is its influence on political campaigning. Personal data retrieved by data miners can enable various companies (most notoriously Cambridge Analytica) to improve the targeting of political advertising, a step beyond the commercial aims of previous surveillance capitalist operations. In this way, it is possible that political parties will be able to produce far more targeted political advertising to maximise its impact on voters. However, Cory Doctorow writes that the misuse of these data sets "will lead us towards totalitarianism". [17] [ better source needed ] This may resemble a corporatocracy, and Joseph Turow writes that "the centrality of corporate power is a direct reality at the very heart of the digital age". [2] [18] : 17 

Theory

Shoshana Zuboff

The terminology "surveillance capitalism" was popularized by Harvard Professor Shoshana Zuboff. [19] : 107  In Zuboff's theory, surveillance capitalism is a novel market form and a specific logic of capitalist accumulation. In her 2014 essay A Digital Declaration: Big Data as Surveillance Capitalism, she characterized it as a "radically disembedded and extractive variant of information capitalism" based on the commodification of "reality" and its transformation into behavioral data for analysis and sales. [20] [21] [22] [23]

In a subsequent article in 2015, Zuboff analyzed the societal implications of this mutation of capitalism. She distinguished between "surveillance assets", "surveillance capital", and "surveillance capitalism" and their dependence on a global architecture of computer mediation that she calls "Big Other", a distributed and largely uncontested new expression of power that constitutes hidden mechanisms of extraction, commodification, and control that threatens core values such as freedom, democracy, and privacy. [24] [2]

According to Zuboff, surveillance capitalism was pioneered by Google and later Facebook, just as mass-production and managerial capitalism were pioneered by Ford and General Motors a century earlier, and has now become the dominant form of information capitalism. [9] Zuboff emphasizes that behavioral changes enabled by artificial intelligence have become aligned with the financial goals of American internet companies such as Google, Facebook, and Amazon. [19] : 107 

In her Oxford University lecture published in 2016, Zuboff identified the mechanisms and practices of surveillance capitalism, including the production of "prediction products" for sale in new "behavioral futures markets." She introduced the concept "dispossession by surveillance", arguing that it challenges the psychological and political bases of self-determination by concentrating rights in the surveillance regime. This is described as a "coup from above." [25]

Key features

Zuboff's book The Age of Surveillance Capitalism [26] is a detailed examination of the unprecedented power of surveillance capitalism and the quest by powerful corporations to predict and control human behavior. [26] Zuboff identifies four key features in the logic of surveillance capitalism and explicitly follows the four key features identified by Google's chief economist, Hal Varian: [27]

  1. The drive toward more and more data extraction and analysis.
  2. The development of new contractual forms using computer-monitoring and automation.
  3. The desire to personalize and customize the services offered to users of digital platforms.
  4. The use of the technological infrastructure to carry out continual experiments on its users and consumers.

Analysis

Zuboff compares demanding privacy from surveillance capitalists or lobbying for an end to commercial surveillance on the Internet to asking Henry Ford to make each Model T by hand and states that such demands are existential threats that violate the basic mechanisms of the entity's survival. [9]

Zuboff warns that principles of self-determination might be forfeited due to "ignorance, learned helplessness, inattention, inconvenience, habituation, or drift" and states that "we tend to rely on mental models, vocabularies, and tools distilled from past catastrophes," referring to the twentieth century's totalitarian nightmares or the monopolistic predations of Gilded Age capitalism, with countermeasures that have been developed to fight those earlier threats not being sufficient or even appropriate to meet the novel challenges. [9]

She also poses the question: "will we be the masters of information, or will we be its slaves?" and states that "if the digital future is to be our home, then it is we who must make it so". [28]

In her book, Zuboff discusses the differences between industrial capitalism and surveillance capitalism. Zuboff writes that as industrial capitalism exploited nature, surveillance capitalism exploits human nature. [29]

John Bellamy Foster and Robert W. McChesney

The term "surveillance capitalism" has also been used by political economists John Bellamy Foster and Robert W. McChesney, although with a different meaning. In an article published in Monthly Review in 2014, they apply it to describe the manifestation of the "insatiable need for data" of financialization, which they explain is "the long-term growth speculation on financial assets relative to GDP" introduced in the United States by industry and government in the 1980s that evolved out of the military-industrial complex and the advertising industry. [30]

Response

Numerous organizations have been struggling for free speech and privacy rights in the new surveillance capitalism [31] and various national governments have enacted privacy laws. It is also conceivable that new capabilities and uses for mass-surveillance require structural changes towards a new system to create accountability and prevent misuse. [32] Government attention towards the dangers of surveillance capitalism especially increased after the exposure of the Facebook-Cambridge Analytica data scandal that occurred in early 2018. [4] In response to the misuse of mass-surveillance multiple states have taken preventive measures. The European Union, for example, has reacted to these events and restricted its rules and regulations on misusing big data. [33] Surveillance-Capitalism has become a lot harder under these rules, known as the General Data Protection Regulations. [33] However, implementing preventive measures against misuse of mass-surveillance is hard for many countries as it requires structural change of the system. [34]

Bruce Sterling's 2014 lecture at Strelka Institute "The epic struggle of the internet of things" [35] explained how consumer products could become surveillance objects that track people's everyday life. In his talk, Sterling highlights the alliances between multinational corporations who develop Internet of Things-based surveillance systems which feeds surveillance capitalism. [35] [36] [37]

In 2015, Tega Brain and Surya Mattu's satirical artwork Unfit Bits encourages users to subvert fitness data collected by Fitbits. They suggested ways to fake datasets by attaching the device, for example to a metronome or on a bicycle wheel. [38] [39] In 2018, Brain created a project with Sam Lavigne called New Organs which collect people's stories of being monitored online and offline. [40] [41]

The 2019 documentary film The Great Hack tells the story of how a company named Cambridge Analytica used Facebook to manipulate the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Extensive profiling of users and news feeds that are ordered by black box algorithms were presented as the main source of the problem, which is also mentioned in Zuboff's book. [42] The usage of personal data to subject individuals to categorization and potentially politically influence individuals highlights how individuals can become voiceless in the face of data misusage. This highlights the crucial role surveillance capitalism can have on social injustice as it can affect all aspects of life. [43]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Privacy</span> Seclusion from unwanted attention

Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about themselves, and thereby express themselves selectively.

The Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) is an independent nonprofit research center established in 1994 to protect privacy, freedom of expression, and democratic values in the information age. Based in Washington, D.C., their mission is to "secure the fundamental right to privacy in the digital age for all people through advocacy, research, and litigation." EPIC believes that privacy is a fundamental right, the internet belongs to people who use it, and there's a responsible way to use technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mass surveillance</span> Intricate surveillance of an entire or a substantial fraction of a population

Mass surveillance is the intricate surveillance of an entire or a substantial fraction of a population in order to monitor that group of citizens. The surveillance is often carried out by local and federal governments or governmental organizations, but it may also be carried out by corporations. Depending on each nation's laws and judicial systems, the legality of and the permission required to engage in mass surveillance varies. It is the single most indicative distinguishing trait of totalitarian regimes. It is often distinguished from targeted surveillance.

Internet privacy involves the right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the storage, re-purposing, provision to third parties, and display of information pertaining to oneself via the Internet. Internet privacy is a subset of data privacy. Privacy concerns have been articulated from the beginnings of large-scale computer sharing and especially relate to mass surveillance.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Startpage.com</span> Privacy-focused search engine based in the Netherlands

Startpage is a Dutch search engine company that highlights privacy as its distinguishing feature. The website advertises that it allows users to obtain Google Search results while protecting users' privacy by not storing personal information or search data and removing all trackers. Startpage.com also includes an Anonymous View browsing feature that allows users the option to open search results via proxy for increased anonymity.

Online advertising, also known as online marketing, Internet advertising, digital advertising or web advertising, is a form of marketing and advertising that uses the Internet to promote products and services to audiences and platform users. Online advertising includes email marketing, search engine marketing (SEM), social media marketing, many types of display advertising, and mobile advertising. Advertisements are increasingly being delivered via automated software systems operating across multiple websites, media services and platforms, known as programmatic advertising.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hal Varian</span> American economist

Hal Ronald Varian is Chief Economist at Google and holds the title of emeritus professor at the University of California, Berkeley where he was founding dean of the School of Information. Varian is an economist specializing in microeconomics and information economics.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shoshana Zuboff</span> American scholar (born 1951)

Shoshana Zuboff is an American author, professor, social psychologist, philosopher, and scholar.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Targeted advertising</span> Form of advertising

Targeted advertising is a form of advertising, including online advertising, that is directed towards an audience with certain traits, based on the product or person the advertiser is promoting.

Social media intelligence comprises the collective tools and solutions that allow organizations to analyze conversations, respond to synchronize social signals, and synthesize social data points into meaningful trends and analysis, based on the user's needs. Social media intelligence allows one to utilize intelligence gathering from social media sites, using both intrusive or non-intrusive means, from open and closed social networks. This type of intelligence gathering is one element of OSINT.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Helen Nissenbaum</span>

Helen Nissenbaum is professor of information science at Cornell Tech. She is best known for the concept of "contextual integrity" and her work on privacy, privacy law, trust, and security in the online world. Specifically, contextual integrity has influenced the United States government's thinking about privacy issues.

Corporate surveillance describes the practice of businesses monitoring and extracting information from their users, clients, or staff. This information may consist of online browsing history, email correspondence, phone calls, location data, and other private details. Acts of corporate surveillance frequently look to boost results, detect potential security problems, or adjust advertising strategies. These practices have been criticized for violating ethical standards and invading personal privacy. Critics and privacy activists have called for businesses to incorporate rules and transparency surrounding their monitoring methods to ensure they are not misusing their position of authority or breaching regulatory standards.

Cross-device tracking is technology that enables the tracking of users across multiple devices such as smartphones, television sets, smart TVs, and personal computers.

Data exhaust or exhaust data is the trail of data left by the activities of an Internet or other computer system users during their online activity, behavior, and transactions. This is part of a broader category of unconventional data that includes geospatial, network, and time-series data and may be useful for predictive analytics. Every visited website, clicked link, and even hovering with a mouse is collected, leaving behind a trail of data. An enormous amount of often raw data are created, which can be in the form of cookies, temporary files, logfiles, storable choices, and more. This information can help to improve the online experience, for example through customized content. It can be used to improve tracking trends and studying data exhaust also improves the user interface and the layout design. On the other hand, they can also compromise privacy, as they offer a valuable insight into the user's habits. For example, as the world's most popular website, Google, uses this data exhaust to refine the predictive value of their products.

Data politics encompasses the political aspects of data including topics ranging from data activism, open data and open government. The ways in which data is collected, accessed, and what we do with that data has changed in contemporary society due to a number of factors surrounding issues of politics. An issue that arises from political data is often how disconnected people are from their own data, rarely gaining access to the data they produce. Large platforms like Google have a "better to ask forgiveness than permission" stance on data collection to which the greater population is largely ignorant, leading to movements within data activism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NOYB</span> European data protection advocacy group

NOYB – European Center for Digital Rights is a non-profit organization based in Vienna, Austria established in 2017 with a pan-European focus. Co-founded by Austrian lawyer and privacy activist Max Schrems, NOYB aims to launch strategic court cases and media initiatives in support of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), the proposed ePrivacy Regulation, and information privacy in general. The organisation was established after a funding period during which it has raised annual donations of €250,000 by supporting members. Currently, NOYB is financed by more than 4,400 supporting members.

In the 2010s, personal data belonging to millions of Facebook users was collected without their consent by British consulting firm Cambridge Analytica, predominantly to be used for political advertising.

<i>The Age of Surveillance Capitalism</i> Book published in 2018

The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power is a 2018 non-fiction book by Shoshana Zuboff which looks at the development of digital companies like Google and Amazon, and suggests that their business models represent a new form of capitalist accumulation that she calls "surveillance capitalism".

Platform capitalism refers to the activities of companies such as Google, Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Uber, Airbnb, Amazon and others to operate as platforms. In this business model both hardware and software are used as a foundation (platform) for other actors to conduct their own business.

A digital platform is a software-based online infrastructure that facilitates user interactions and transactions.

References

  1. 1 2 3 Zuboff, Shoshana (January 2019). "Surveillance Capitalism and the Challenge of Collective Action". New Labor Forum. 28 (1): 10–29. doi: 10.1177/1095796018819461 . ISSN   1095-7960. S2CID   159380755.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Couldry, Nick (23 September 2016). "The price of connection: 'surveillance capitalism'". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 20 May 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  3. ↑ John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1 June 2018), Data analytics and big data: chapter 5: Data analytics process:there's great work behind the scenes, pp. 77–99, doi:10.1002/9781119528043.ch5, ISBN   978-1-119-52804-3, S2CID   243896249
  4. 1 2 Cadwalladr, Carole (20 June 2019). "The Great Hack". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  5. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana; Möllers, Norma; Murakami Wood, David; Lyon, David (31 March 2019). "Surveillance Capitalism: An Interview with Shoshana Zuboff". Surveillance & Society. 17 (1/2): 257–266. doi: 10.24908/ss.v17i1/2.13238 . ISSN   1477-7487.
  6. ↑ Mosco, Vincent (17 November 2015). To the Cloud: Big Data in a Turbulent World. Routledge. ISBN   9781317250388. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  7. ↑ Fuchs, Christian (20 February 2017). Social Media: A Critical Introduction. SAGE. ISBN   9781473987494. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  8. ↑ Scholz, Trebor (27 December 2016). Uberworked and Underpaid: How Workers Are Disrupting the Digital Economy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   9781509508181. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 Zuboff, Shoshana (5 March 2016). "Google as a Fortune Teller: The Secrets of Surveillance Capitalism". Faz.net. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  10. ↑ Galič, Maša; Timan, Tjerk; Koops, Bert-Jaap (13 May 2016). "Bentham, Deleuze and Beyond: An Overview of Surveillance Theories from the Panopticon to Participation". Philosophy & Technology. 30: 9–37. doi: 10.1007/s13347-016-0219-1 .
  11. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana. "Shoshana Zuboff: A Digital Declaration". FAZ.NET (in German). ISSN   0174-4909. Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  12. ↑ "Shoshana Zuboff On surveillance capitalism". Contagious. Archived from the original on 6 February 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  13. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. p. 504-505, 519.
  14. ↑ Sandberg, Roy (May 2020). "Surveillance capitalism in the context of futurology : an inquiry to the implications of surveillance capitalism on the future of humanity". Helsinki University Library. pp. 33, 39, 87. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  15. ↑ "Comic-Con 2016: Marvel turns focus away from the Avengers, 'Game of Thrones' cosplay proposals, and more". Los Angeles Times. 24 July 2016. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  16. ↑ "Oliver Stone Calls Pokémon Go "Totalitarian"". Fortune. 23 July 2016. Archived from the original on 14 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  17. ↑ Doctorow, Cory (5 May 2017). "Unchecked Surveillance Technology Is Leading Us Towards Totalitarianism | Opinion". International Business Times. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  18. ↑ Turow, Joseph (10 January 2012). The Daily You: How the New Advertising Industry Is Defining Your Identity and Your Worth. Yale University Press. p. 256. ISBN   978-0300165012. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  19. 1 2 Roach, Stephen (2022). Accidental Conflict: America, China, and the Clash of False Narratives. Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv2z0vv2v. ISBN   978-0-300-26901-7. JSTOR   j.ctv2z0vv2v. S2CID   252800309.
  20. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana (15 September 2014). "A Digital Declaration: Big Data as Surveillance Capitalism". FAZ.NET (in German). ISSN   0174-4909. Archived from the original on 22 June 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  21. ↑ Powles, Julia (2 May 2016). "Google and Microsoft have made a pact to protect surveillance capitalism". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  22. ↑ Sterling, Bruce (March 2016). "Shoshanna Zuboff condemning Google "surveillance capitalism"". WIRED. Archived from the original on 14 January 2019. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  23. ↑ "The Unlikely Activists Who Took On Silicon Valley — and Won". New York Times. 14 August 2018. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  24. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana (4 April 2015). "Big other: surveillance capitalism and the prospects of an information civilization". Journal of Information Technology. 30 (1): 75–89. doi: 10.1057/jit.2015.5 . ISSN   0268-3962. S2CID   15329793. SSRN   2594754.
  25. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana (5 March 2016). "Google as a Fortune Teller: The Secrets of Surveillance Capitalism". FAZ.NET (in German). ISSN   0174-4909 . Retrieved 28 August 2018.
  26. 1 2 Zuboff, Shoshana (2019). The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN   9781610395694. OCLC   1049577294.
  27. ↑ Varian, Hal (May 2010). "Computer Mediated Transactions". American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings. 100 (2): 1–10. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.216.691 . doi:10.1257/aer.100.2.1.
  28. ↑ Zuboff, Shoshana (15 September 2014). "Shoshana Zuboff: A Digital Declaration". Faz.net. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. Archived from the original on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  29. ↑ "Shoshana Zuboff On surveillance capitalism". Contagious. Archived from the original on 6 February 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  30. ↑ "Surveillance Capitalism | John Bellamy Foster | Monthly Review". Monthly Review. 1 July 2014. Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
  31. ↑ Foster, John Bellamy; McChesney, Robert W. (1 July 2014). "Surveillance Capitalism by John Bellamy Foster". Monthly Review. Archived from the original on 30 April 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2017.
  32. ↑ Cofone, Ignacio (2023). The Privacy Fallacy: Harm and Power in the Information Economy. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9781108995443.
  33. 1 2 Marelli, Luca; Testa, Giuseppe (3 May 2018). "Scrutinizing the EU General Data Protection Regulation". Science. 360 (6388): 496–498. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..496M. doi:10.1126/science.aar5419. hdl: 2434/590000 . ISSN   0036-8075. PMID   29724945. S2CID   19118004.
  34. ↑ Cadwalladr, Carole (31 March 2018). "AggregateIQ: the obscure Canadian tech firm and the Brexit data riddle". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077. Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  35. 1 2 Bruce Sterling. (29 October 2018). Lecture "The epic struggle of the internet of things". Strelka Institute/Институт Стрелка. Retrieved 13 March 2019. (on Youtube)
  36. ↑ "Bruce Sterling's "The Epic Struggle of the Internet of Things"". Boing Boing. 14 September 2014. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
  37. ↑ Paul-Choudhury, Sumit (18 March 2019). "How the apocalypse could be a good thing". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  38. ↑ Mattu, Tega Brain and Surya. "Unfit Bits". www.unfitbits.com. Archived from the original on 24 January 2019. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
  39. ↑ Werner, Joel; Osborne, Tegan (9 April 2016). "Unfit Bits: How to hack your fitness data". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  40. ↑ Schwartz, Oscar (13 July 2018). "Digital ads are starting to feel psychic". The Outline. Archived from the original on 19 December 2018. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  41. ↑ "Brainwashing your wife to want sex? Here is adtech at its worst". The Drum. 23 July 2018. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
  42. ↑ Cadwalladr, Carole (20 July 2019). "The Great Hack: the film that goes behind the scenes of the Facebook data scandal". The Observer. ISSN   0029-7712. Archived from the original on 4 February 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2020.
  43. ↑ Cinnamon, Jonathan (5 December 2017). "Social Injustice in Surveillance Capitalism". Surveillance & Society. 15 (5): 609–625. doi:10.24908/ss.v15i5.6433. hdl: 10871/30595 . ISSN   1477-7487.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.