For the over 600 recognized species of living cone snails, Tucker and Tenorio's classification system proposed 3 distinct families and 82 genera. The authors discussed in detail 89 genera and five families in total (that have the inner shell walls resorbed during growth), including fossil cone snail genera and snails which were previously traditionally classified as turrids. This classification was based upon shellmorphology, radular differences, anatomy, physiology, cladistics, and an analysis of then published molecular phylogeny (DNA) studies. The genera proposed by Tucker and Tenorio are recognized as an "alternate representation" by the World Register of Marine Species. The authors further proposed a modification to the classification of Bouchet & Rocroi (2005) for ten additional Conoidea families (which do not resorb their inner walls) which included turrids which had been placed in the Conidae by Taylor, et al. in 1993.[3] This proposed taxonomic classification separated the turrid snails from the cone snails, which were considered to be a distinct and diverse group.
Illustrated plate of the shells of some cone snails from J.C. Chenu (1842) Illustrations Conchyliologiques
Cone snails and the genus problem
In 1758, Linnaeus, working only with shells, placed all the cone snails in a single genus Conus. In 1792, three genera were proposed by Hwass, five genera were proposed by Montfort in 1810, and then six genera by Kiener in 1845. In 1874, H.C. Weinkauff proposed a system of seventeen genera for the 352 then-known species of cones. This system of classification was adopted by G. W. Tryon in 1884.[4][5]
In the 1930s, Iredale proposed several new genera, followed by B. C. Cotton in 1945, with twenty-nine genera.[6] From 1956 onwards, Kuroda and other Japanese scientists introduced several additional new genera.[7] Ultimately dozens of genera and subgenera were being used.
In 1937, J.R. Tomlin advocated that all cone snail species should be placed in the single genus Conus in the family Conidae, with the explanation that "the grouping of the Cones is as yet so little understood that I have made no attempt to deal with the growing number of subgenera and genera into which Conus has been dismembered."[8] In 1979, Jerry G. Walls emulated Tomlin by confining all species to the genus Conus, stating that "although many subgenera or genera have been devised for the cones, only the single genus Conus with no subgenera is recognized here."[9] Subsequent experts in the field of cone snail taxonomy followed Tomlin and Walls, and retained all species of cones in the single genus Conus, making the Conidae a monogeneric family. This traditional Linnaean classification system, placing all species of cones in the single genus Conus, continued for decades before a malacologist proposed a different classification system.
In 1991, A.J. da Motta published a new systematic classification of cone species at the generic level, incorporating all taxa previously named by other authors.[10] A.J. da Motta's classification system, which covered both extant and fossil species, was based primarily on the shape and contours of the body whorl of the shell, and attempted to make generic classification of cones possible in an objective manner. This 1991 proposed classification used eight existing genera, Conus, Leptoconus, Dendroconus, Hermes, Profundiconus, Gastridium, Conasprella, and Cylinder, and sixty subgenera. A.J. da Motta's proposed classification was however not generally accepted.
The last comprehensive treatise dealing with the family Conidae as a whole was the "Manual of the Living Conidae", by Röckel, Korn & Kohn (1995). Only one genus, Conus, was used for the entire family, the authors stating that they considered there was still insufficient scientific data at that time to accurately define the diversity of the family.[11] The Conus Biodiversity Website, by Alan J. Kohn and Trevor Anderson, notes that there are more than 500 recognized extant species of Conus, out of 3,253 species names published between 1758 and 2007. As of the date of The Conus Biodiversity Website's last update in October 2007, only the genus Conus is recognized for the entire family.[12]
Modern taxonomic classifications
Molecular testing in order to try to understand the molecular phylogeny of the Conidae was initially begun by Christopher Meyer and Alan Kohn in 2005,[13] and is continuing, particularly with the advent of nuclear DNA testing in addition to mDNA testing. In modern taxonomic classifications, cladistical analyses are performed using traditionally accepted taxonomic characteristics, including morphology (shell shape has been used for over 250 years as the basis for classification), and modern techniques including DNA analyses. Such studies have been conducted on many groups of gastropods, including cone snails prior to the publication of Tucker and Tenorio's treatise.[14][15][16][17][18][19]
Tucker and Tenorio’s 2009 proposed classification
Tucker and Tenorio's 2009 classification system for the cone shells and their allies (which resorb their inner walls during growth) was based on a cladistical analysis of anatomical characters, including the radular tooth, the morphology (i.e. shell characters), as well as an analysis of prior molecular phylogeny studies, all of which were used to construct phylogenetic trees.[1] In their phylogeny, Tucker and Tenorio noted the close relationship of the cone species within the various clades, corresponding to their proposed families and genera; this also corresponded to the results of prior molecular studies by Puillandre et al. and others.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20]
Tucker and Tenorio's proposed classification system for the cone shells and their allies is shown below (note that genera that contain only fossil species are marked with †):
Tucker and Tenorio's proposed classification system for the other clades of Conoidean gastropods (that do not resorb their inner walls), is also based upon morphological, anatomical, and molecular studies, and is shown below:
Superfamily Conoidea Fleming, 1822
(Species in these families lack a radular membrane)
Subsequent molecular studies and taxonomic changes
The family Taranteconidae was proposed by Tucker and Tenorio for the unusual species Taranteconus chiangi Azuma, 1972 (equivalent to Conus chiangi), based upon their cladistical analysis. In 2010, a molecular phylogeny conducted by M. Watkins, et al. found that, based upon molecular studies, Conus chiangi (Azuma, 1972) falls within the Stephanoconus clade with 100% certainty. Further, Conus chiangi has peptidetoxins that are virtually identical to those of the other Stephanoconus species. The authors opined that the specific peptide toxins were the result of strong natural selection in prey choice, as all Stephanoconus species prey on amphinomidpolychaetes (also known as "fire worms").[21]
In their 2009 treatise, John K. Tucker and Manuel J. Tenorio elevated the subfamily Conorbiinae (previously placed within the family Conidae) to the rank of family, based upon a cladistical analysis (as discussed above) which was used to construct phylogenetic trees.[1] Shortly thereafter, in 2011, Bouchet et al. confirmed the elevation of the subfamily Conorbiinae to the family Conorbidae, based upon a detailed molecular phylogeny of a dataset of molecular sequences (of three gene (DNA) fragments), an analysis that was conducted across the superfamily Conoidea. Bouchet et al., further recognized Tucker & Tenorio's proposed modified classification, removing many turrid genera from the traditional cone snails, creating the following Conoidean gastropod families: Borsoniidae (which includes Tucker & Tenorio's family Cryptoconidae), Raphitomidae, Mangeliidae, Mitromorphidae, and Clathurellidae.[22] These studies effectively removed these turrid genera from the family which traditionally represented the cone snails.
Significance of "alternative representations"
As previously mentioned, prior to 2009, all species within the family Conidae were placed in one genus, Conus. In 2009, J.K. Tucker and M.J. Tenorio proposed a classification system for the over 600 recognized species in the family: 3 distinct families and 82 genera for the living species of cone snails. This classification was based upon shellmorphology, radular differences, anatomy, physiology, cladistics, with comparisons to molecular (DNA) studies.[1] Published accounts using these multiple genera to explain the diversity within the Conidae include J.K. Tucker & M.J. Tenorio (2009), and Bouchet et al. (2011).[22] Recent published accounts of the proposed family Conilithidae and its genera include: Tucker & Stahlschmidt (2010), Tucker, Tenorio & Stahlschmidt (2011), Bouchet et al. (2011), Puillandre et al. (2011), Tucker & Tenorio (2011), Petuch & Sargent (2011), and Petuch & Drolshage (2011).[23][22][24][25][26][27][28]
However, in 2011, some experts still preferred to use the traditional classification, where all species are placed in Conus within the single family Conidae. For example, the November 2011 version of the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) used this system. The binomial names of species in the 82 living cone snail genera listed in Tucker & Tenorio 2009 were nonetheless recognized by WoRMS as "alternative representations."[29] Debate within the scientific community regarding this issue continued, and additional molecular phylogeny studies were carried out in an attempt to clarify the issue.[14][15][20][21][22][24][25][26][27][28][30][31][32]
Conidae, with the current common name of "cone snails", is a taxonomic family of predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs in the superfamily Conoidea.
Conoidea is a superfamily of predatory sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks within the suborder Hypsogastropoda. This superfamily is a very large group of marine mollusks, estimated at about 340 recent valid genera and subgenera, and considered by one authority to contain 4,000 named living species.
Cone snails, cone shells, or cones are a large group of small- to large-sized extremely venomous predatory sea snails, marine gastropod molluscs.
Jaspidiconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Calamiconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conus, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Bathyconus is a subgenus of sea snails, cone snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Californiconus is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks. The experts at WoRMS place this group of species in the family Conidae, the cone snails, but some other experts placed previously the genus in a proposed family, the Conilithidae. This is a monotypic genus.
Conasprella is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies. This genus was formerly treated by some experts as a member of the family Conilithidae and as an "alternative representation" of this group of species.
Conasprelloides is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Dalliconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Conilithidae is a proposed taxonomic family of small to medium-sized sea snails, specifically cone snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Conoidea, the cone snails and their allies.
Fusiconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Globiconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Gradiconus is a synonym of a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conus, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies. T
Kohniconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conilithidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Lamniconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Lilliconus is subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Parviconus is a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the genus Conasprella, family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies. This genus currently is still treated by some experts as an "alternative representation" of this group of species.
Perplexiconus has become a synonym of Conasprella (Ximeniconus) Emerson & Old, 1962, a subgenus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
Profundiconus is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Conidae, the cone snails and their allies.
References
1 2 3 4 5 Tucker J.K. & Tenorio M.J. (2009) Systematic classification of Recent and fossil conoidean gastropods. Hackenheim: Conchbooks. 296 pp., at p. 133
↑ Taylor, J.D, Kantor, Yu. I. & Sysoev, A.V. (1993) Foregut anatomy, feeding mechanisms, relationships and classification of the Conoidea (=Toxoglossa)(Gastropoda). Bulletin of Natural History Museum of London Zoology 59:125-170.
↑ Weinkauff, H.C. (1873-1875) Die Familie der Coneae oder Conidae. Systematisches Conchylien-Cabinet von Martini und Chemnitz. Bauer & Raspe, Nurenberg, Vol. 4(2):125-244.
↑ Tryon, G.W., Jr. (1884) Conidae, Pleurotomidae. Manual of Conchology, structural and systematic, with illustrations of the species. Tryon, Philadelphia, Vol. 6:1-413; Pls. 1-31 (Conidae).
↑ Cotton, B.C. (1945) A catalogue of the cone shells (Conidae) in the South Australian Museum. Records of the South Australian Museum 8:229-280, 5 pls.
↑ Kuroda, T. (1956) New species of the Conidae (Gastropoda) from Japan. Venus 19(1):1-15, pl. 1.
↑ Tomlin, J.R. le B. (1937) Catalogue of Recent and fossil cones. Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London 22:205-330.
↑ Jerry G. Walls (1979) Cone Shells a Synopsis of the Living Conidae published by T.F.H. Publications, Inc., Neptune City, New Jersey. Pages 1-1011, at p. 31.
↑ A.J. da Motta (1991) A Systematic Classification of the Gastropod Family Conidae at the Generic Level published by La Conchiglia. 48 pp.
↑ Röckel, D., Korn, W., & Kohn, A. (1995) Manual of the Living Conidae, Volume 1: Indo-Pacific Region. Christa Hemmen, Wiesbaden, 517 pp.
1 2 3 P.K. Bandyopadhyay, B.J. Stevenson, J.P. Ownby, M.T. Cady, M. Watkins, & B. Olivera (2008), The mitochondrial genome of Conus textile, coxI-conII intergenic sequences and conoidean evolution. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 46: 215-223.
1 2 3 S.T. Williams & T.F. Duda, Jr. (2008), Did tectonic activity stimulate Oligo-Miocene speciation in the Indo-West Pacific? Evolution 62:1618-1634.
1 2 R.L. Cunha, R. Castilho, L. Ruber, & R. Zardoya (2005), Patterns of cladogenesis in the venomous marine gastropod genus Conus from the Cape Verde Islands Systematic Biology 54(4):634-650.
1 2 T.F. Duda, Jr. & A.J. Kohn (2005), Species-level phylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genus Conus, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 34:257-272.
1 2 T.F. Duda, Jr. & E. Rolan (2005), Explosive radiation of Cape Verde Conus, a marine species flock, Molecular Ecology 14:267-272.
1 2 B. Vallejo, Jr. (2005), Inferring the mode of speciation in the Indo-West Pacific Conus (Gastropoda: Conidae), Journal of Biogeography 32:1429-1439.
1 2 3 N. Puillandre, S. Samadi, M. Boesselier, A. Sysoev, Y. Kantor, C. Cruaud, A. Couloux, & P. Bouchett (2008), Starting to unravel the toxoglossan knot: molecular phylogeny of the "turrid" (Neogastropoda: Conoidea), Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 47:1122-1134.
1 2 Watkins, M., Corneli, P.S., Hillyard, D., & Olivera, B.M. (2010) Molecular phylogeny of Conus chiangi (Azuma, 1972) (Gastropods:Conidae). The Nautilus 124(3):129-136.
↑ Puillandre N., Meyer C.P., Bouchet P., and Olivera B.M. (2011), Genetic divergence and geographical variation in the deep-water Conus orbignyi complex (Mollusca: Conoidea), Zoologica Scripta 40(4) 350-363.
1 2 Tucker, J. K. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2010) A second species of Pseudoconorbis (Gastropoda: Conoidea) from India. Miscellanea Malacologica 4(3):31-34.
1 2 Tucker, J. K., Tenorio, M. J. & Stahlschmidt, P. (2011) The genus Benthofascis (Gastropoda: Conoidea): a revision with descriptions of new species. Zootaxa 2796:1-14.
1 2 Tucker, J. K. & Tenorio, M. J. (2011) New species of Gradiconus and Kohniconus from the western Atlantic (Gastropoda: Conoidea: Conidae, Conilithidae).Miscellanea Malacologica 5(1):1-16.
1 2 Petuch, E. J. & Sargent, D. M. (2011) New species of Conidae and Conilithidae (Gastropoda) from the tropical Americas and Philippines. With notes on some poorly-known Floridian species. Visaya 3(3):116-137.
1 2 Petuch & Drolshage (2011) Compendium of Florida Fossil Shells, Volume 1 MDM Publications, Wellington, FL., 432 pp.
↑ http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=14107Classification: "Traditionally, all cone shells have been included in the Linnaean genus Conus. Tucker & Tenorio (2009) have recently proposed an alternative shell- and radula-based classification that recognizes 4 families and 80 genera of cones. In WoRMS, we currently still recognize a single family Conidae (following Puillandre et al. 2011), but Tucker & Tenorio's 80 genera classification is presented as "alternative representation". [P. Bouchet, 14 Aug. 2011]
↑ N. Puillandre, E. Strong, P. Bouchet, M. Boisselier, V. Couloux, & S. Samadi (2009), Identifying gastropod spawn from DNA barcodes: possible but not yet practicable, Molecular Ecology Resources 9:1311-1321.
↑ C.M.L. Afonso & M.J. Tenorio (August 2011), A new, distinct endemic Africonus species (Gastropoda, Conidae) from Sao Vicente Island, Cape Verde Archipelago, West Africa, Gloria Maris 50(5): 124-135
↑ Biggs, J. S., Watkins, M. Showers Corneli, P. and Olivera, B. M. (2010). Defining a clade by morphological, molecular, and toxinological criteria: distinctive forms related to Conus praecellens A. Adams, 1854 (Gastropoda: Conidae). Nautilus 124:1-19 (naming new species and moving species from Kurodaconus to Turriconus).
Further reading
Kohn A. A. (1992). Chronological Taxonomy of Conus, 1758-1840". Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.
World Register of Marine Species's statement of position: "Traditionally, all cone shells have been included in the Linnean genus Conus. Tucker & Tenorio (2009) have recently proposed an alternative shell- and radula-based classification that recognizes 4 families and 80 genera of cones. In WoRMS, we currently still recognize a single family Conidae (following Puillandre et al. 2011), but Tucker & Tenorio's 80 genera classification is presented as "alternative representation". [P. Bouchet, 14 Aug. 2011]."
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