Thecaphora frezzii

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Thecaphora frezzii
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Ustilaginomycetes
Order: Urocystidales
Family: Glomosporiaceae
Genus: Thecaphora
Species:
T. frezzii
Binomial name
Thecaphora frezzii
J.M. Carranza and J.C. Lindquist (1962)

Thecaphora frezzii, commonly referred to as peanut smut, is a species of smut fungus of the genus Thecaphora and the family Glomosporiaceae. It is a basidiomycete fungus that infects peanut plants (Arachis hypogaea). [1] It is currently only found in South America, more specifically in Argentinian peanut farms. [2]

Contents

Taxonomy

Thecaphora frezzii was described by J.M. Carranza and J.C. Lindquist in 1962. [3] It was originally spelled as "frezii" but was later changed to "frezzii." [4]

Description

Physical description

An infected host's pod will have hypertrophic cells in the form of galls and a spongy consistency. [5] The cells of the grains inside the pods are destroyed and replaced by reddish-brown teliospores. [5] Something characteristic of all Thecaphora species is that they all produce sori in the host plant. [6] For T. frezzii, these sori are produced on the peanut seeds and are composed of 1 to 10 tightly bound spores. [6]

Lifecycle

Thecophora frezzii is a biotrophic obligate parasite of peanut plants. [1] It is monocyclic, so an infection cycle occurs once per growing season. [1] The fungus causes a partial or total destruction of the peanut fruit. [2] Throughout the biological cycle of the fungus, there are three main structures: teliospores, basidiospores, and hyphae.

Teliospores

The teliospores are present during the state of dormancy and act as resistance structures. [7] [2] They have thick walls allowing the fungus to survive in the soil and crop residue until germination. [7] Teliospores germinate in response to the plant root exudates, therefore infection occurs once the peanut peg enters the soil. [4] Teliospores disperse most commonly via wind or machinery when peanuts are harvested and remain dormant until germination is triggered. [8] [7]

Basidiospores

Following the germination of teliospores, the probasidum forms. The probasidium has two haploid nuclei which fuse to form a diploid nucleus. [2] From this nucleus, the basidium arises, which forms basidiospores via meiosis. [2] During basidiospore germination, compatible haploid germ tubes fuse. [2]

Hyphal stage

Germination of the basidiospores leads to the formation of a dikaryotic mycelium, which is the infection structure of Thecaphora frezzii. [2] The mycelium infects the host by penetrating the gynophore. [8] It uses effectors to suppress the host's immune responses to insure successful penetration and infection. [8]

Habitat and range

Thecaphora frezzii is only found in South America. Cases of peanut smut on domesticated peanuts are only reported in Argentina, while wild peanuts were found to be infected in other parts of the continent. [1] The fungus never breaches to the surface and remains in humid soils. [2] Prevalence of the fungus is higher in soils in which crop rotation is rare and peanut farming has been the only usage for an extended period. [2]

Thecaphora frezzii infection of Argentinian peanut farms

T. frezzii was first detected in 1955 in the Córdoba Province. [9] By 2011, the fungus had reached 100% prevalence in production fields, with disease incidence reaching up to 52% of plants. [10] [9] [11] In 2016, the reported total yield loss was equal to $14,151,800 for Argentina. [2]

Many methods of management have been attempted but have proven to be ineffective against the fungus. [12] The most effective method reported is cultivating resistant strains of peanut. [11] While cultivated peanut plants have low genetic diversity, T. frezzii has high genetic variability making it difficult to cultivate resistant plants. [9]

Recent studies have begun testing biological control options by using other organisms such as bacteria or fungi to control the fungus. One organism that has been tested in Argentina is Trichoderma harazianum [13] .

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basidiomycota</span> Division of fungi

Basidiomycota is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basidiomycota includes these groups: agarics, puffballs, stinkhorns, bracket fungi, other polypores, jelly fungi, boletes, chanterelles, earth stars, smuts, bunts, rusts, mirror yeasts, and Cryptococcus, the human pathogenic yeast.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rust (fungus)</span> Order of fungi

Rusts are fungal plant pathogens of the order Pucciniales causing plant fungal diseases.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Smut (fungus)</span> Reproductive structure of fungi

The smuts are multicellular fungi characterized by their large numbers of teliospores. The smuts get their name from a Germanic word for 'dirt' because of their dark, thick-walled, and dust-like teliospores. They are mostly Ustilaginomycetes and comprise seven of the 15 orders of the subphylum. Most described smuts belong to two orders, Ustilaginales and Tilletiales. The smuts are normally grouped with the other basidiomycetes because of their commonalities concerning sexual reproduction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Karnal bunt</span> Smut fungus damaging wheat plants

Karnal bunt is a fungal disease of wheat, durum wheat, and triticale. The smut fungus Tilletia indica, a basidiomycete, invades the kernels and obtains nutrients from the endosperm, leaving behind waste products with a disagreeable odor that makes bunted kernels too unpalatable for use in flour or pasta. While Karnal bunt generally does not lead to devastating crop losses, it has the potential to dramatically decrease yield, and poses additional economic concerns through quarantines which limit the export of suspected infectious wheat products from certain areas, including the U.S. Several chemical control methods exist for Karnal bunt of wheat, but much work remains to be done in identifying resistant host varieties.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sugarcane smut</span> Species of fungus

Sugarcane smut is a fungal disease of sugarcane caused by the fungus Sporisorium scitamineum. The disease is known as culmicolous, which describes the outgrowth of fungus of the stalk on the cane. It attacks several sugarcane species and has been reported to occur on a few other grass species as well, but not to a critical amount. The most recognizable characteristic of this disease is a black or gray growth that is referred to as a "smut whip". Resistance to sugarcane smut is the best course of action for management, but also the use of disease free seed is important. On smaller scale operations treatments using hot water and removing infected plants can be effective. The main mode of spore dispersal is the wind but the disease also spreads through the use of infected cuttings. Sugarcane smut is a devastating disease in sugarcane growing areas globally.

Common bunt, also known as hill bunt, Indian bunt, European bunt, stinking smut or covered smut, is a disease of both spring and winter wheats. It is caused by two very closely related fungi, Tilletia tritici and T. laevis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loose smut</span> Fungal disease of barley plants

Loose smut of barley is caused by Ustilago nuda. It is a disease that can destroy a large proportion of a barley crop. Loose smut replaces grain heads with smut, or masses of spores which infect the open flowers of healthy plants and grow into the seed, without showing any symptoms. Seeds appear healthy and only when they reach maturity the following season is it clear that they were infected. Systemic fungicides are the major control method for loose smut.

<i>Tilletia caries</i> Species of fungus

Tilletia caries is a basidiomycete that causes common bunt of wheat. The common names of this disease are stinking bunt of wheat and stinking smut of wheat. This pathogen infects wheat, rye, and various other grasses. T. caries is economically and agriculturally important because it reduces both the wheat yield and grain quality.

<i>Urocystis agropyri</i> Species of fungus

Urocystis agropyri is a fungal plant pathogen that causes flag smut on wheat.

<i>Puccinia helianthi</i> Species of fungus

Puccinia helianthi is a macrocyclic and autoecious fungal plant pathogen that causes rust on sunflower. It is also known as "common rust" and "red rust" of sunflower.

<i>Puccinia menthae</i> Species of fungus

Puccinia menthae is a fungal plant pathogen that causes rust on mint plants. It was originally found on the leaves of Mentha aquatica.

Sporisorium sorghi, commonly known as sorghum smut, is a plant pathogen that belongs to the Ustilaginaceae family. This fungus is the causative agent of covered kernel smut disease and infects sorghum plants all around the world such as Sorghum bicolor (sorghum), S. sudanense, S. halepense and Sorghumvulgare var. technichum (broomcorn). Ineffective control of S. sorghi can have serious economic and ecological implications.

Sporisorium reilianum Langdon & Full., (1978), previously known as Sphacelotheca reiliana, and Sporisorium reilianum, is a species of biotrophic fungus in the family Ustilaginaceae. It is a plant pathogen that infects maize and sorghum.

<i>Exobasidium vaccinii</i> Species of fungus

Exobasidium vaccinii, commonly known as “red leaf disease,” or “Azalea Gall,” is a biotrophic species of fungus that causes galls on ericaceous plant species, such as blueberry and azalea. Exobasidium vaccinii is considered the type species of the Exobasidium genus. As a member of the Ustilagomycota, it is a basidiomycete closely related to smut fungi. Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel first described the species in 1861 under the basionym Fusidium vaccinii, but in 1867 Mikhail Stepanovich Voronin later placed it in the genus Exobasidium. The type specimen is from Germany, and it is held in the Swedish Museum of Natural History. Exobasidium vaccinii, in current definition from John Axel Nannfeldt in 1981, is limited on the host Vaccinium vitis-idaea. This idea is used in most recent papers on E. vaccinii.

Thecaphora is a genus of basidiomycote fungus which contains several species of plant pathogens. The widespread genus contained about 57 species in 2008. and held 61 species in 2020.

<i>Puccinia horiana</i> Species of fungus

Puccinia horiana is a species of fungus that causes chrysanthemum white rust, is a disease of plant species of the genus Chrysanthemum.

<i>Salmacisia</i> Genus of fungi

Salmacisia is a fungal genus in the family Tilletiaceae. It is a monotypic genus, containing the single species Salmacisia buchloëana, first described as Tilletia buchloëana in 1889, and renamed in 2008. Plants infected by the fungus undergo a phenomenon known as "parasitically induced hermaphroditism", whereby ovary development is induced in otherwise male plants. Because of the pistil-inducing effects of the fungus, the authors have named the species pistil smut; it is the only species in the order Tilletiales known to have hermaphroditic effects.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Entorrhizomycetes</span> Class of fungi

Entorrhizomycetes is the sole class in the phylum Entorrhizomycota, within the Fungi subkingdom Dikarya along with Basidiomycota and Ascomycota. It contains three genera and is a small group of teliosporic root parasites that form galls on plants in the Juncaceae (rush) and Cyperaceae (sedge) families. Prior to 2015 this phylum was placed under the subdivision Ustilaginomycotina. A 2015 study did a "comprehensive five-gene analyses" of Entorrhiza and concluded that the former class Entorrhizomycetes is possibly either a close sister group to the rest of Dikarya or Basidiomycota.

<i>Microbotryum violaceum</i> infection of <i>Silene latifolia</i> Fungal disease of a plant

Microbotryum violaceum is a host-specific anther smut (fungus) disease that infects Silene latifolia and sterilizes the host plant. When infected with this disease, the flowers generate pathogenic spores, which can then be transferred to other plants by pollinating insects. Therefore, this disease is sometimes classified as a sexually transmitted infection.

<i>Puccinia sorghi</i> Common rust of maize/corn fungal disease

Puccinia sorghi, or common rust of maize, is a species of rust fungus that infects corn and species from the plant genus Oxalis.

References

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