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Modern Theosophy and politics, according to the statements of Helena Blavatsky and Henry Olcott, are not connected between themselves in any way.[1] However, investigations of historians and religious studies scholars show that the Theosophical movement has played a significant role in consolidation of Indiannationalism.[2][3][4][5] Similar to neo-Hinduism, Theosophy had supporting promotion the nationalist ideology, and this gave Prof. Mark Bevir a reason to consider it not only as a form of "political movement", but also as an "integral part" of neo-Hinduism.[2]
Theosophy is an esoteric religious movement established in the United States during the late nineteenth century. It was founded largely by the Russian émigrée Helena Blavatsky and draws its beliefs predominantly from Blavatsky's writings. Categorised by scholars of religion as both a new religious movement and as part of the occultist stream of Western esotericism, it draws upon both older European philosophies like Neoplatonism and Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism.
Politics is a set of activities associated with the governance of a country or an area. It involves making decisions that apply to group of members.
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky was a Russian occultist, philosopher, and author who co-founded the Theosophical Society in 1875. She gained an international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy, the esoteric religion that the society promoted.
Noticeable similarity between the teachings of the Theosophical Society (TS) and the movements of Ramakrishna, Sri Aurobindo, and Dayananda Sarasvati allows you to consider them, in Bevir's opinion, as variations of neo-Hinduism. He wrote that "they constitute a coherent and related set of religious ideas and movements constructed in a particular social and cultural context." In fact, these were attempts to form a "new spirituality" to decide the dilemmas associated with British colonial rule and modern scientific discoveries.[6][note 1]
The Theosophical Society was an organization formed in the United States in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky to advance Theosophy. The original organization, after splits and realignments, currently has several successors. Following the death of Blavatsky, competition within the Society between factions emerged, particularly among founding members and the organisation split between the Theosophical Society Adyar (Olcott-Besant) and the Theosophical Society Pasadena (Judge). The former group, headquartered in India, is the most widespread international group holding the name "Theosophical Society" today.
Ramakrishna Paramahansa was an Indian Hindu mystic and saint in 19th century Bengal. Ramakrishna experienced spiritual ecstasies from a young age, and was influenced by several religious traditions, including devotion toward the goddess Kali, Tantra (shakta), Vaishnava (bhakti), and Advaita Vedanta. Reverence and admiration for him among Bengali elites led to Swami Vivekananda founding the Ramakrishna Math, which provides spiritual training for monastics and householder devotees and the Ramakrishna Mission to provide charity work and education.
Sri Aurobindo was an Indian philosopher, yogi, guru, poet, and nationalist. He joined the Indian movement for independence from British rule, for a while was one of its influential leaders and then became a spiritual reformer, introducing his visions on human progress and spiritual evolution.
After the TS founders' moving into India in 1879, educated Indians were particularly impressed that Blavatsky and Olcott began to defend their ancient religion and philosophy, contributing to the growth of people's self-consciousness against the foundations of colonial power. Ranbir Singh, the "Maharajah of Kashmir" and a "Vedanta scholar", sponsored Blavatsky and Olcott's travels in India. Sirdar Thakar Singh Sandhanwalia, "founder of the Singh Sabha," became a master ally of the Theosophists.[8][9] In 1915, Annie Besant stated that the British were the first foreigners to come to India, "with no intention of learning from her culture," but solely for the purpose of money-grubbing. They had "even conquered India" by the fraudulent ways of the tradesmen. "England," Besant said, "did not 'conquer her [India] by the sword' but by the help of her own swords, by bribery, intrigue, and most quiet diplomacy, fomenting of divisions, and playing of one party against another."[10] In her "countless speeches and lectures", Besant invariably emphasized the "wisdom and morality" of Hindu ideals, the magnificence of India's past, and encouraged Indians to restore the glory of their civilization which they lost during the period of British colonial rule.[11] Like other neo-Hinduists, the Theosophists tried to convince the Indians of the value of "their own civilization, to pride in their past, creating self-respect in the present, and self confidence in the future."[12]
Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā is the most prominent of the six (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads. It does not stand for one comprehensive or unifying doctrine. Rather it is an umbrella term for many sub-traditions, ranging from dualism to non-dualism, all of which developed on the basis of a common textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The Prasthanatrayi is a collective term for the Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
The Singh Sabha Movement was a Sikh movement that began in Punjab in the 1870s in reaction to the proselytising activities of Christians, Brahmo Samajis, Arya Samaj, the Aligarh movement and Ahmadiyah. The movement was founded in an era when the Sikh Empire had been dissolved and annexed by the colonial British, the Khalsa had lost its prestige, and mainstream Sikhs were rapidly converting to other religions. The movement's aims were, according to Barrier and Singh, to "propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its pristine glory; to write and distribute historical and religious books of Sikhs; to propagate Gurmukhi Punjabi through magazines and media". The movement sought to reform Sikhism and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had converted to other religions; as well as to interest the influential British officials in furthering the Sikh community. At the time of its founding, the Singh Sabha policy was to avoid criticism of other religions and political matters.
Annie Besant was a British socialist, theosophist, women's rights activist, writer, orator, educationist, and philanthropist. Regarded as a champion of human freedom, she was an ardent supporter of both Irish and Indian self-rule. She was a prolific author with over three hundred books and pamphlets to her credit. As an educationist, her contributions included the founding of the Banaras Hindu University.
Bevir noted that in India Theosophy "became an integral part of a wider movement of neo-Hinduism", which gave Indian nationalists a "legitimating ideology, a new-found confidence, and experience of organisation." He stated the Theosophists, like Dayananda Sarasvati, Swami Vivekananda, and Sri Aurobindo, "eulogised the Hindu tradition", however simultaneously calling forth to deliverance from the vestiges of the past. Theosophists and neo-Hinduists were urging nationalists to view the country as a whole, as having a common heritage and facing a set of problems requiring an all-Indian answer. They managed to make popular the belief in the "golden age" when India was free from spiritual and social problems like modern ones. They suggested that even now India continues to possess that spirituality that is not in the West and without which the West cannot do.[13]
Swami Vivekananda, born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, a chief disciple of the 19th-century Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the introduction of the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the late 19th century. He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India, and contributed to the concept of nationalism in colonial India. Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission. He is perhaps best known for his speech which began with the words - "Sisters and brothers of America ...," in which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Allan Octavian Hume, a British colonial official in India[14], together with Alfred Percy Sinnett participated in a correspondence with the Theosophical mahatmas organized by Blavatsky.[15][note 2] He joined TS in 1880 and already in 1881 became the head of its section in Simla.[17] Even before the meeting with the Theosophists, Hume had the opportunity to read secret reports from many places in India (it was in 1878), which convinced him that most of the native population was unhappy with British rule and was ready to oppose the colonialists even in arms.[18] Since the opinion of the mahatmas on the situation in the country confirmed the reports of 1878, Hume concluded that they decided "to warn him of an impending catastrophe" in order that he, using his authority and connections in the British administration, help prevent this catastrophe.[19]
Allan Octavian Hume, CB ICS was a member of the Imperial Civil Service, a political reformer, ornithologist and botanist who worked in British India. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress. A notable ornithologist, Hume has been called "the Father of Indian Ornithology" and, by those who found him dogmatic, "the Pope of Indian ornithology".
Alfred Percy Sinnett was an English author and theosophist.
First of all, Hume tried to persuade Lord Ripon, the Viceroy of India, to "reform the administration of India so as to make it more responsive to the Indian people."[15] In addition, he decided to promote the idea of a pan-Indian organization, through which the native people could express their "concerns and aspirations."[20] He believed that the future organization should be called the Indian National Union. In 1885, this idea obtained support of Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well as the "Bombay group for an all-India political conference to be held in Poona during December 1885." By visiting Madras and Calcutta, Hume persuaded local leaders to agree with his plans to create an Indian National Union. The first session of the organization was held in Bombay in December 1885, and its members "immediately" called for renaming it into Indian National Congress (INC). Hume became its general secretary.[14][21][15]
George Frederick Samuel Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon,, styled Viscount Goderich from 1833 to 1859 and known as the Earl of Ripon in 1859 and as the Earl de Grey and Ripon from 1859 to 1871, was a British politician who served in every Liberal cabinet from 1861 until the year before his death, which took place forty-eight years later in 1909.
Pune Sarvajanik Sabha,, was a sociopolitical organisation in British India which started with the aim of working as a mediating body between the government and people of India and to popularise the peasants' legal rights. It started as an elected body of 95 members elected by 6000 persons on April 2, 1870. The organisation was a precursor to the Indian National Congress which started with its first session from Maharashtra itself. The Pune Sarvajanik Sabha provided many of the prominent leaders of national stature to the Indian freedom struggle including Bal Gangadhar Tilak. It was formed in 1870 by S. H. Chiplunkar, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi, Mahadev Govind Ranade, et al.
The Indian National Congress(pronunciation) is a political party in India with widespread roots. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement. Congress led India to independence from Great Britain, and powerfully influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire.
In Bevir's opinion, Hume was able to carry out his plans, largely due to the fact that he worked with people whom he repeatedly met at the annual conventions of TS. Theosophy had a "specific impact" on Indian nationalism. Hume and some Indians who obtained Western education used it for political purposes, in particular, to provide the conditions for the formation of the nationalist movement.[22] It should also be noted that no Indian could become the founder of INC and, as Gopal Krishna Gokhale wrote,
"if the founder of the Congress had not been a great Englishman and a distinguished ex-official, such was the distrust of political agitation in those days that the authorities would have at once found some way or other to suppress the movement."[23]
Besant, who replaced Olcott as president in 1907, reaffirmed the role of the Theosophical Society as "a religious and cultural" organization, but not political one.[24] However, 1913 was a "turning point" in the activities of Besant herself. At the end of this year, she gave a series of lectures under the general title "Wake Up, India."[4][25] The experience of the "nationwide political agitation" acquired by her in England included public speeches, the publication of newspapers and brochures, and participation in lawsuits. In 1914, Besant started off publication of two political newspapers, a weekly The Commonwealth, and a daily New India.[4][note 3] During the year, she published in New India articles that discussed the role that INC should play. Many of the most significant publications confirming her views belonged not only to Theosophists, such as Krishna Rao and Srinivasa Aiyar, but also to other nationalists. Thus, Besant tried to impose onto INC a "more radical political programme". She required self-government for India in the near future, and she wanted INC to put forward this demand, leading a propaganda campaign using methods known to her to work in England. In her opinion, INC should have "formulate, proclaim, and promote" the views of enlightened India on all problems of public importance. She wrote that "politics should become a permanent feature of the life of the Indian people," and not a three-day event, limited by the annual session.[28][29]
In September 1916, Besant established in Madras the All-India Home Rule League which numbered a year later 27,000 members.[30][4] The Council of the League entered: A. Besant, G. Arundale[note 4], R. Aiyar, S. Aiyar, B. P. Wadia, A. Rasul, and P. Telang, "only Ramaswami Aiyar was not a Theosophist, and even he was a sympathiser."[32] Additionally, although the number of the League members was about five times the size of the Indian section of TS, the members of TS were often leading followers in the affiliates of the League, for example, in Tanjore, Srinivasa Aiyar headed the local sections of TS and the League; in Calicut, Manjeri Ramier owned an office in both organisations; 68 out of 70 people in the Bombay City section of the League were members of TS.[33] The League called its immediate task to set up campaigning among the delegates of the upcoming session of INC in order to make the politics of Home Rule its dominant one.[32]
At the end of 1916 and beginning of 1917, the League worked "vigorously" to fulfill the task set by its leadership. In June 1917, the Madras government, concerned about the activity of the nationalists, interned Besant, Arundale, and Wadia.[34] This led to a mass protest among the Indians, Besant was elected president of INC, and in September 1917, the authorities were forced to release those arrested.[35] When Besant, Arundale, and Vadia were released, they were met in Madras, Calcutta, and Benares as heroes. In December 1917, Besant presided over the session of INC.[36][note 5] Prof. Catherine Wessinger noted that Besant was "not only the first woman to be elected president of the Indian National Congress, but she was the first president to make that position into an active year-long job." Under her leadership, INC adopted, in particular, a resolution on the inadmissibility of social discrimination of untouchables.[4] Bevir claimed as follows:
"Although the All-India Home Rule League remained independent of the Society, and although Besant generally continued to deny that the Theosophical Society was in any way political, the League relied heavily on people and networks brought together by the Society. Once again, therefore, whatever the official position of the Society, and whatever Besant might have said or intended, it quite clearly played a political role within India."[24]
In Prof. Kocku von Stuckrad's opinion, the "most prominent example" of the impact of Theosophy on Indian society is demonstrated by a biography of Mahatma Gandhi,[37] who became informed on TS in 1889 during his learning in London.[38][39] In his autobiography he wrote that, "like many other intellectuals", he realized for the first time the importance of his own culture after meeting the Theosophists. On their recommendation, he read The Key to Theosophy by Blavatsky. He wrote, "This book stimulated in me the desire to read books on Hinduism, and disabused me of the notion fostered by the missionaries that Hinduism was rife with superstition."[40]
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) was the first Prime Minister of India (from 1947 to 1964). When he was 11 years old, the Irish Theosophist Ferdinand Brooks became his home teacher, who was recommended by Annie Besant to his father. According to Nehru, Brooks taught him for three years and has extremely influenced him: for some time, Theosophy had a strongest impact on him. When he was only thirteen years old he, having received the permission of his father, joined TS. He wrote that "Mrs. Besant herself performed the ceremony of initiation." [41][42] According to Prof. Wessinger, Nehru, like many young Indians, received his first political experience as member of the All-India Home Rule League, founded by Besant.[4]
Von Stuckrad stated that the Theosophical concept of "ancient wisdom" of humanity, based on the "Oriental spirituality", had been supporting the strengthening of anti-colonial attitudes in India. He wrote, "The wave of sympathy which embraced the Theosophists in India and Ceylon had strong political implications."[43] He cited in Cranston's book the words of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the philosopher and the second President of India (from 1962 to 1967), who said:
"When, with all kinds of political failures and economic breakdowns we (Indians) were suspecting the values and vitality of our culture, when everything round about us and secular education happened to discredit the value of Indian culture, the Theosophical Movement rendered great service by vindicating those values and ideas. The influence of the Theosophical Movement on general Indian society is incalculable."[44]
Alfred Deakin (1856–1919) was an Australian politician, the Prime Minister of Australia in 1903–1904, 1905–1908, and 1909–1910. He interested in spiritualism and in works by Emanuel Swedenborg. He was during short time (1895–1896) a member of the Theosophical Society.[45][46] Nevertheless, continuing to be interested in Theosophy, attended the lectures of Olcott and Besant during their Australian tours.[47]
George Lansbury (1859–1940) was a British politician, the leader of the Labour Party from 1931 to 1935. By joining the Theosophical Society in 1914, he was supporting all initiatives of its president. He was the head of the British branch of the All-India Home Rule League, founded by Annie Besant.[48][49]
Accusers of the Theosophists
According to Richard Hodgson, an author of the well-known "Hodgson Report", Blavatsky's "function in India was to foster as widely as possible among the natives a disaffection towards British rule." In his article in The Age (1885), he noted that her influence has spread far beyond of the Theosophical Society. And further: "When she returned to India at the end of last [1884] year an address of sympathy was presented to her by a large body of native students of Madras, of whom only two or three were Theosophists."[50][51][note 6]
Peter Washington stated that not only Annie Besant, but other Theosophists failed to draw the border between Hinduism and Indian nationalism. The preaching of the greatness of the local religion, which was conducted by Besant, was perceived by her listeners as a call for an anti-colonial revolution, and she did not seek to refute this. He noted that the British government was not happy that an Englishwoman, a fighter for the rights of local people, invaded the electrified atmosphere of Indian politics. The anxiety of the colonial authorities was fully justified. Having familiarized themselves with Annie Besant's political credo, nationalist newspapers admired her talent as an agitator and, being flattered by her sympathy for Hinduism, called for her to stand at the head of the campaign against British rule, praising her as their savior.[53]
↑ In Vladimir Trefilov's opinion, integral yoga of Sri Aurobindo, like Blavatsky's Theosophy, is a type of the non-denominational syncretic religious philosophy.[7]
↑ Besant's "editorial partner was B. P. Wadia, who did much to support the newspaper financially."[26] Bahman Pestonji Wadia (1881–1958) was an Indian Theosophist and politician, founder of the first Indian trade union.[27]
↑ George Sidney Arundale (1878–1945) was the third president of the Theosophical Society Adyar (from 1934 to 1945).[31]
↑ This session "drew a record attendance of 4,967 delegates and about 5,000 visitors including about 400 women."[4]
↑ Washington wrote that Blavatsky was meeted in December 1884 by native population in Madras with open arms.[52]
Related Research Articles
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Charles Webster Leadbeater was a member of the Theosophical Society, author on occult subjects and co-initiator with J. I. Wedgwood of the Liberal Catholic Church.
The Theosophical Society (Pasadena) is a branch of Theosophy based in Pasadena, California. It claims to be the successor organization to the original Theosophical Society founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and others in 1875 in New York City. Currently is the second largest Theosophical group in members and international reach after the Theosophical Society Adyar.
The United Lodge of Theosophists or ULT is an informal and wholly voluntary association of students of Theosophy. It was founded in 1909, mainly through the efforts of Robert Crosbie. The first parent lodge of the ULT was started in Los Angeles by Robert Crosbie and seven other associates through the adoption of its Declaration on February 18, 1909. Owing largely to the revival efforts of B.P. Wadia after Crosbie's death, there are currently about twenty active lodges spread all over the world. The ULT is considered to be part of the second generation or the third section of the Theosophical Movement started in 1875 by H.P. Blavatsky in New York. Presently, it is also one of the existing four main "branches" of the original Theosophical Movement. The following founding principles when taken as a whole, sets apart the ULT from the other Theosophical Organizations:
Morya is one of the "Masters of the Ancient Wisdom" within modern Theosophical beliefs. He is one of the Mahatmas who inspired the founding of the Theosophical Society and was engaged in a correspondence with two English Theosophists living in India, A. P. Sinnett and A. O. Hume. The correspondence was published in 1923 by A. Trevor Barker, in the book The Mahatma Letters to A. P. Sinnett.
Francesca Arundale was an English theosophist and freemason.
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Bahman Pestonji Wadia or Bomanji Pestonji Wadia was an Indian theosophist and labour activist. He was first a member of the TS Adyar, later of the United Lodge of Theosophists. On 13 April 1918, along with V. Kalyanasundaram Mudaliar, Wadia founded the Madras Labour Union, one of India's first organised labour unions.
The Theosophist is the monthly journal of the international Theosophical Society based in Adyar, India. It was founded in India in 1879 by Helena Blavatsky, who was also its editor. The journal is still being published till date. For the year 1930, the journal was published in Hollywood, California by Annie Besant and Marie Russak Hotchener, but it returned to Adyar in 1931. The journal features articles about philosophy, art, literature and occultism.
Theosophical teachings have borrowed some concepts and terms from Buddhism. Some theosophists like Helena Blavatsky, Helena Roerich and Henry Steel Olcott also became Buddhists. Henry Steel Olcott helped shape the design of the Buddhist flag. Tibetan Buddhism was popularised in the West at first mainly by Theosophists including Evans-Wentz and Alexandra David-Neel.
The term Neo-Theosophy is a term, originally derogatory, used by the followers of Blavatsky to denominate the system of Theosophical ideas expounded by Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater following the death of Madame Blavatsky in 1891. This material differed in major respects from Blavatsky's original presentation, but it is accepted as genuinely Theosophical by many Theosophists around the world.
The Blavatsky Lodge was an English Theosophical Society. The complete name is The Blavatsky Lodge of the Theosophical Society.
The Order of the Star in the East (OSE) was an international organisation based at Benares (Varanasi), India, from 1911 to 1927. It was established by the leadership of the Theosophical Society at Adyar, Chennai, in order to prepare the world for the arrival of a messianic entity, the so-called World Teacher or Maitreya. The OSE acquired members worldwide as it expanded in many countries; a third of its diverse membership c. 1926 was unaffiliated with the Theosophical Society. The precursor of the OSE was the Order of the Rising Sun and the successor was the Order of the Star. The precursor organisation was formed after leading Theosophists discovered a likely candidate for the new messiah in the then–adolescent Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895–1986), a South Indian Brahmin who was installed as Head of the Order. Almost two decades later Krishnamurti rejected the messianic role, repudiated the Order's mission, and in 1929 disbanded the OSE's successor. The founding and activities of these organisations, as well as the largely unexpected dissolution of the OSE's successor, attracted widespread media attention and public interest. They also led to crises in the Theosophical Society and to schisms in Theosophy.
The Masters of the Ancient Wisdom are reputed to be enlightened beings originally identified by the Theosophists Helena Blavatsky, Henry S. Olcott, Alfred Percy Sinnett, and others. These Theosophists claimed to have met some of the so-called Masters during their lifetimes in different parts of the world. Sometimes they are referred to by Theosophists as Elder Brothers of the Human Race, Adepts, Mahatmas, or simply as The Masters.
Christianity and Theosophy, for more than a hundred years, have had a "complex and sometimes troubled" relationship. The Christian faith was always the native religion of the great majority of Western Theosophists, but many came to Theosophy through a process of examination or even opposition to Christianity. According to professor Robert S. Ellwood, "the whole matter has been a divisive issue within Theosophy."
New India was an early 20th century daily newspaper published in India by Annie Besant, to highlight issues related to the Indian freedom struggle.
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Bevir, M. (July 1991). "The Formation of the All-India Home Rule League". The Indian Journal of Political Science. Indian Political Science Association. 52 (3): 341–56. JSTOR41855566.
Hanes III, W. T. (1993). "On the Origins of the Indian National Congress". Journal of World History. University of Hawai'i Press. 4 (1): 69–98. JSTOR20078547.
Johnson, K. P. (1994). "Who inspired Hume?". The Masters Revealed. SUNY series in Western esoteric traditions. Albany: State University of New York Press. pp.234–41. ISBN9780791420638. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
Lansbury, G. (1928). My Life. Constable and Company Limited. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
Mortimer, Joanne S. (January 1983). "Annie Besant and India 1913–1917". Journal of Contemporary History. London: Sage Publications. 18 (1): 61–78. doi:10.1177/002200948301800104. JSTOR260481.
Nehru, J. (1941). "Theosophy". Toward Freedom: The Autobiography of Jawaharlal Nehru. The John Day Company. pp.26–30.
Трефилов, В. А. (2005). "Глава XVII. Надконфессиональная синкретическая религиозная философия" [Chapter XVII. Non-denominational syncretic religious philosophy]. In Яблоков, И. Н. (ed.). Основы религиоведения[Fundamentals of the Religious Studies]. Классический университетский учебник (in Russian) (4th ed.). Москва: Высшая школа. pp.364–81. ISBN978-5060042542.
Tenbroeck D. (14 March 2012). "Wadia, Bahmanji Pestonji". Theosopedia. Manila: Theosophical Publishing House. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
Further reading
Harris P. S. (12 March 2012). "Das, Bhagavan". Theosopedia. Manila: Theosophical Publishing House. Retrieved 2019-04-15.
Jinarajadasa, C. (September 1923). "The Divine Wisdom and Politics"(PDF). The Theosophist. Adyar: Theosophical Society. 44: 643–8. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
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