Triangularia setosa

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Triangularia setosa
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Ascomycota
Class: Sordariomycetes
Order: Sordariales
Family: Podosporaceae
Genus: Triangularia
Species:
T. setosa
Binomial name
Triangularia setosa
(G.Winter) X.Wei Wang & Houbraken (2019)
Synonyms [1]
  • Sordaria setosaG.Winter (1873)
  • Philocorpa setosa Sacc. (1882)
  • Pleurage setosa Kuntze (1898)
  • Podospora setosa(G.Winter) Niessl (1883)
  • Cladochaete setosa(G.Winter) Sacc. (1912)

Triangularia setosa is a member of the Ascomycota, and of the genus Triangularia . This genus is notable for its widespread appearance on the excrement of herbivores, and is therefore seen as a coprophilous fungus. [2] The fungus itself is characteristically dark in colour and produces sac-like perithecium with a covering of hair. [3] Its dispersion involves the ingestion, passage, and projectile ejection of spores. It has preference for colonizing the dung of lagomorphs, such as hares and rabbits. [4]

History and taxonomy

Triangularia setosa was first described in Germany in the year 1873 under its basionym Sordaria setosa by G. Winter. [5] In 1883, the fungus was given the name Podospora setosa by mycologist Niessl. [6] Since 1883, P. setosa has had synonymy within multiple genera including Pleurage (1898), Philocopra (1907), and Cladocheate (1912). [5] [7] [8] These genera can share similar morphology of ascus and spores, as well as habitat. Most recently, the species was transferred to the genus Triangularia by X.W. Wang and Houbraken in 2019. [9] The genus Triangularia is distinguished by its triangular, or wedge-like, appearance of spores. [9]

Growth and morphology

Triangularia setosa grows optimally at 25 °C and in conditions where light is present. [9] [10] Its rate of growth and production of fruiting bodies can be manipulated by the presence or absence of light. [10] In the absence of light, growth is stunted and production of perithecium does not occur. The only exception to this is in conditions where high amounts of water are present, in where perithecium may develop. [10] In light conditions, perithecium will develop and the fungus will grow maximally. Triangularia setosa develops best in light on the shorter end of the visible spectrum. [10] Longer wavelengths have shown to be less effective at promoting growth, with the maximum wavelength for growth production being 510 nm. [11]

Triangularia setosa is multicellular and has been observed in its sexual state only. [9] As a member of the Ascomycota, development of ascus occurs within a sac-like structure. This sac, the perithecia, has a wide base, thin neck, and is covered in hairs. [3] Triangularia setosa has the majority of these hairs are at the base of its fruiting body. [3] [12] The hairs are off-white in colour and are approximately 600μm long and 3μm wide. [10] This fungus has an apical ring, which may vary in visibility as it has been described as both conspicuous and non-conspicuous in the literature. [3] [9]

Inside the perithecia are asci, each containing eight ascospores. [5] A perithecia of P. setosa has been estimated to house 512 spores. [9] The spores themselves are 19μm in length with a single apex on which exists a germ pore. [3] Inside the ascus, spores are arranged densely and without organization. [5] When mature, they are brown in colour, ellipsoidal in shape, and are coated in a clear hyaline covering. [9] The spores possess a primary appendage at the distal end, and a secondary appendage at the apex. [12] [3] The secondary appendage, a feature which is commonly seen in coprophilous fungi, is thought to help with attachment to plant material. [13] Under heavy-water conditions, swelling of the hyaline sheathe and activation of the secondary appendage allows for optimal attachment to surfaces. [13]

Physiology

The cycle of successional colonization of P. setosa involves the ingestion and excretion of the fungus by herbivorous animals. [14] Spore projection from animal excrement allows for transferring of the fungus between animals. [14]

The process of spore dispersal requires the build-up of osmotic pressure inside the perithecia. [15] At the threshold of pressure, ejection of spores occur through the apical pore. This pore is surrounded by an elastic ring which changes shape as the spore passes. [15] The recoil of the apical ring back to its original shape following distortion amplifies the velocity at which spores exit the ascus. [15] In the case of P. setosa, spores released in larger quantities (>100) may be ejected up to a distance of 35 cm. [10] Notably, spore release may become rhythmic if given a day-night cycle. [10]

Habitat and ecology

The favoured carbon source for P. setosa is the excrement of herbivorous animals, due to the broken-down plant material and abundance of Nitrogen. Though it is primarily found in the dung of herbivores, there are records of the fungus in the feces of omnivores. [14] The dominance of bacteria makes this an unlikely occurrence, and as such it has yet to be recorded on the excrement of any carnivorous animals. [14] Triangularia setosa may also be found on non-digested material, such as vegetable seeds, soil, and decaying plant material. [12]

Triangularia setosa has been documented within many different countries including Canada, Germany, Spain, Brazil, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. [12] [9] [3] [16] [8] These records indicate its presence in the excrement of rabbits, geese, farm animals, horses, and possums. [3] [9] [16] [17] [14] The fungus itself favours the colonization of lagomorphs over ruminants, but surprisingly can be found on material passed by both types of digestion. [4] This shows an ability to withstand digestion from several hours up to several days, as lagomorphs routinely ingest their own fecal matter. [4] The smaller percentage of colonization in ruminants and horses may be due to competition with other types of cophriphilous fungi, who are not able to withstand the longer digestion times of lagomorphs. [4]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ascomycota</span> Division or phylum of fungi

Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The defining feature of this fungal group is the "ascus", a microscopic sexual structure in which nonmotile spores, called ascospores, are formed. However, some species of Ascomycota are asexual and thus do not form asci or ascospores. Familiar examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, brewers' and bakers' yeast, dead man's fingers, and cup fungi. The fungal symbionts in the majority of lichens such as Cladonia belong to the Ascomycota.

An ascocarp, or ascoma, is the fruiting body (sporocarp) of an ascomycete phylum fungus. It consists of very tightly interwoven hyphae and millions of embedded asci, each of which typically contains four to eight ascospores. Ascocarps are most commonly bowl-shaped (apothecia) but may take on a spherical or flask-like form that has a pore opening to release spores (perithecia) or no opening (cleistothecia).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ascus</span> Spore-bearing cell in ascomycete fungi

An ascus is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in ascomycete fungi. Each ascus usually contains eight ascospores, produced by meiosis followed, in most species, by a mitotic cell division. However, asci in some genera or species can occur in numbers of one, two, four, or multiples of four. In a few cases, the ascospores can bud off conidia that may fill the asci with hundreds of conidia, or the ascospores may fragment, e.g. some Cordyceps, also filling the asci with smaller cells. Ascospores are nonmotile, usually single celled, but not infrequently may be coenocytic, and in some cases coenocytic in multiple planes. Mitotic divisions within the developing spores populate each resulting cell in septate ascospores with nuclei. The term ocular chamber, or oculus, refers to the epiplasm that is surrounded by the "bourrelet".

<i>Pilobolus</i> Genus of fungi

Pilobolus is a genus of fungi that commonly grows on herbivore dung.

<i>Sordaria fimicola</i> Species of fungus

Sordaria fimicola is a species of microscopic fungus. It is commonly found in the feces of herbivores. Sordaria fimicola is often used in introductory biology and mycology labs because it is easy to grow on nutrient agar in dish cultures. The genus Sordaria, closely related to Neurospora and Podospora, is a member of the large class Sordariomycetes, or flask-fungi. The natural habitat of the three species of Sordaria that have been the principal subjects in genetic studies is dung of herbivorous animals. The species S. fimicola is common and worldwide in distribution. The species of Sordaria are similar morphologically, producing black perithecia containing asci with eight dark ascospores in a linear arrangement. These species share a number of characteristics that are advantageous for genetic studies. They all have a short life cycle, usually 7–12 days, and are easily grown in culture. Most species are self-fertile and each strain is isogenic. All kinds of mutants are easily induced and readily obtainable with particular ascospore color mutants. These visual mutants aid in tetrad analysis, especially in analysis of intragenic recombination.

<i>Uromyces dianthi</i> Species of fungus

Uromyces dianthi is a fungus species and plant pathogen infecting carnations and Euphorbia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coprophilous fungi</span> Fungi that grow on animal dung

Coprophilous fungi are a type of saprobic fungi that grow on animal dung. The hardy spores of coprophilous species are unwittingly consumed by herbivores from vegetation, and are excreted along with the plant matter. The fungi then flourish in the feces, before releasing their spores to the surrounding area.

Sphaerotheca castagnei is a species of ascomycete fungus in the family Erysiphaceae. A plant pathogen, it causes a form of powdery mildew.

Triangularia is a genus of fungi in the family Podosporaceae.

Polytolypa is a monotypic genus of fungus containing the single species Polytolypa hystricis. First classified in the Onygenaceae family, as of 2008 it is considered to be in the Ajellomycetaceae, although there is still uncertainty as to its phylogenetic relationships with other similar genera. This species is only known from a single specimen derived in the laboratory from a specimen of dung of the North American porcupine, Erethizon dorsatum, collected in Ontario, Canada. Polytolypa hystricis contains bioactive compounds that have antifungal activity.

<i>Podospora anserina</i> Species of fungus

Podospora anserina is a filamentous ascomycete fungus from the order Sordariales. It is considered a model organism for the study of molecular biology of senescence (aging), prions, sexual reproduction, and meiotic drive. It has an obligate sexual and pseudohomothallic life cycle. It is a non-pathogenic coprophilous fungus that colonizes the dung of herbivorous animals such as horses, rabbits, cows and sheep.

<i>Engleromyces sinensis</i> Species of fungus

Engleromyces sinensis is a species of fungus in the family Xylariaceae. It was described as new to science in 2010, based on specimens collected in 1958 and incorrectly identified as Engleromyces goetzii. The fungus is known only from China, where it grows on bamboo culms. It forms fruit bodies in the shape of two roughly circular buff-colored lobes measuring up to 50 cm (20 in) in diameter that envelop the bamboo. E. sinensis has been used as a folk remedy against cancer and infection in Tibet, Yunnan, and Sichuan Provinces. Several bioactive metabolites have been isolated and identified from the fungus.

Botryotrichum murorum is a common soil and indoor fungus resembling members of the genus Chaetomium. The fungus has no known asexual state, and unlike many related fungi, is intolerant of high heat exhibiting limited growth when incubated at temperatures over 35 °C. In rare cases, the fungus is an opportunistic pathogen of marine animals and humans causing cutaneous and subcutaneous infection.

Collariella bostrychodes is a fungal decomposer of lignin and carbohydrate in the family Chaetomiaceae commonly found in soil and dung. The fungus is distinguished by a darkened collar-like ostiole around the ostiolar pore, giving the fungus its name. The fungus is highly variable in shape and form, giving raise to the belief that there are two subclades in the species. The ascospores range from lemon-shaped to nearly spherical with slightly pointed ends. It can grow to be pale green and later turn pale bluish grey or olivaceous with age. The fungus produces the toxic secondary metabolite, chaetochromin.

Arcopilus aureus is a plant and soil fungus in the genus Arcopilus. It was first identified by A. H. Chivers in 1912, who named it Chaetomium aureum. It was later transferred to the genus Arcopilus by Wang and colleagues. The fungus has recently been recognized to have industrial use for the production of the metabolites resveratrol. and sclerotiorin Additionally, A. aureus has high lead tolerance and clearance, suggesting a potential role in environmental biotechnology.

Zopfiella ebriosa is an unharmful fungus discovered covering the corks of wine bottles in 1991 in Tarragona, Spain. A member of the division Ascomycota, Zopfiella ebriosa is characterized by small and asymmetrical asci, presence of ostioles, and possession of germ slits.

Podospora appendiculata is a coprophilous fungus that is most commonly found in the dung of lagomorphs, such as hares and rabbits, in temperate to warm climates. A member of the division Ascomycota, P. appendiculata is characterized by ovoid, hair-studded perithecia which can bear a distinctive violaceous colouring and peridia which are coriaceous, or leathery, in texture. Podospora appendiculata has been shown to produce three compounds with antimicrobial properties.

Anopodium ampullaceum is a species of fungus first discovered by Nils Lundqvist in Sweden, in the year 1964. A. ampullaceum became one of the first few fungi along with Anopodium epile and Podospora dagonerii, to be placed in the new genus Anopodium due to their unique spores that did not suit the description of the spores of the Podospora genus, which P. dagonerii had previously belonged to. The genus Anopodium deviates from other members of the Sordariomycetes class by two spore characteristics; firstly the pedicels of its spore in the apical position, and secondly due to its immature spores having spherical bodies with cylindrical apical regions. As of 1998 all three of these species are now considered to be one species, using the name A. ampullaceum.

Cercophora areolata is a member of the Ascomycota division, and is grouped into the Lasiosphaeriaceae family based on morphology. C. areolata is a coprophilous fungus that has been most recently isolated from porcupine dung. Defining features of C. areolata include: 1) ovoid-conical, glabrous ascomata, 2) black, carbonaceous, areolate peridium and 3) clavate-shaped, single-walled asci. From studies on C. areolata, this fungus produces multiple antifungal compounds, which inhibit other competitor fungi.

Protothelenella is a genus of fungi in the family Protothelenellaceae. It contains 11 species, some of which form lichens. Protothelenella species have a crustose thallus with spherical to pear-shaped, dark brown to blackish perithecia. Microscopic characteristics of the genus include bitunicate asci with an amyloid tholus, and ascospores that are colourless and contain multiple internal partitions. Some species grow on acidic substrates including rocks, soil, bryophytes, plant detritus or rotten wood. Other species are lichenicolous (lichen-dwelling), growing on species of Solorina, Peltigera, Pseudocyphellaria, or Cladonia.

References

  1. ↑ "GSD Species Synonymy: Triangularia setosa (G. Winter) X. Wei Wang & Houbraken". Species Fungorum . Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  2. ↑ Melo, R. F. R.; Miller, A. N.; Maia, L.C. (2015). "The genus Podospora (Lasiosphaeriaceae, Sordariales) in Brazil". Mycosphere. 6 (2): 201–202. doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/6/2/10 . Retrieved 27 October 2019.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Mirza, J.H.; Cain, R.F. (1969). "Revision of the genus Podospora". Canadian Journal of Botany. 47 (12): 2002, 2014, 2028, 2040–2041. doi:10.1139/b69-293.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Richardson, M.J. (January 1972). "Coprophilous ascomycetes on different dung types". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 58 (1): 37–40. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(72)80069-X.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Doveri, Francesco (April 2008). "A bibliography of Podospora and Schizothecium, a key to the species, and a description of Podospora dasypogon newly recorded from Italy" (PDF). Pagine de Micologia. 19 (32): 99.
  6. ↑ "Index Fungorum - Names Record". www.indexfungorum.org. Retrieved October 10, 2019.
  7. ↑ "Podospora setosa". mycobank.org. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
  8. 1 2 "Podospora setosa (G. Winter) Niessl". nbn.atlas.org. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Wang, X. W.; Bai, F. Y.; Bensch, K.; Meijer, M.; Sun, B. D.; Han, Y. F.; Crous, P. W.; Samson, R. A.; Yang, F. Y.; Houbraken, J. (1 June 2019). "Phylogenetic re-evaluation of Thielavia with the introduction of a new family Podosporaceae". Studies in Mycology. 93: 243–245. doi: 10.1016/j.simyco.2019.08.002 . ISSN   0166-0616. PMC   6816082 . PMID   31824584.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Callaghan, A. A. (1 June 1962). "Observations on perithecium production and spore discharge in Pleurage setosa". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 45 (2): 249–254. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(62)80058-8. ISSN   0007-1536.
  11. ↑ Giese, A. C. (2013). Photophysiology : current topics. Volume III. Elsevier. pp. 82–83. ISBN   978-1483262284.
  12. 1 2 3 4 Cain, R.F.; Groves, J.W. (1948). "Notes on seed-borne fungi: VI. Sordaria". Canadian Journal of Research. 26 (5): 488–489. doi:10.1139/cjr48c-032. PMID   18892116.
  13. 1 2 Jones, Gareth E.B. (August 2006). "Form and function of fungal spore appendages". Mycoscience. 47 (4): 167–169. doi:10.1007/S10267-006-0295-7. S2CID   86218769.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 Bell, Ann (1983). Dung fungi : an illustrated guide to coprophilous fungi in New Zealand. Victoria University Press. pp. 14–15, 60. ISBN   0864730012.
  15. 1 2 3 Fritz, Jeorg A.; Seminara, Agnese; Roper, Marcus; Pringle, Ann; Brenner, Michael P. (6 August 2013). "A natural O-ring optimizes the dispersal of fungal spores". Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 10 (85): 20130187. doi:10.1098/rsif.2013.0187. PMC   3971719 . PMID   23782534.
  16. 1 2 Lundqvist, Nils (1960). "Coprophilous ascomycetes from northern Spain" (PDF). Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. 54: 525. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
  17. ↑ Piontelli, E.; Santa-maria, M. Alicia Toro; Caretta, G. (May 1981). "Coprophilous fungi of the horse". Mycopathologia. 74 (2): 89–90. doi:10.1007/BF01259464. PMID   7242651. S2CID   2554460.
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