Before it became active again in 1631, Vesuvius had remained for about five centuries in a state of quiescence with its last significant eruption since 1169.[1][2][3] A minor eruption was recorded in 1500 by a singular source from Ambrosio Leone, however this event was likely caused due to a phreatic event, increased fumarolic activity, or major rockfall.
Topography of Mount Vesuvius prior to the 1631 eruption
Prior to the eruption, Mount Vesuvius was lush with dense vegetation. The lower slopes were lined with vineyards and orchards, while higher elevations housed groups of oak and chestnut trees.[4] Inside the crater, forests thrived along with three lakes from which pasturing herds drank from, however they would ultimately disappear due to rising temperatures as Vesuvius began its erupting process.[4][5]
Early Signs
As early as August 1631, visible signs of Vesuvius' reawakening could be seen on the North flank of the Vesuvian cone, where sightings of increased fumarolic activity and nocturnal incandescence were reported.[6] Increased local seismicity would also began to be perceived starting in December 1631 with the strongest tremors being felt as far away as the Italian city of Napoli, culminating in a grade VII MCS shake on 15 December, followed by an intense earthquake swarm.[7]
Several unusual phenomena preceded the eruption, including acoustic disturbances, ground deformations, gas emissions, and changes in groundwater. From October to December, locals reported rumbling sounds and noises resembling thunder or rockfalls, particularly around Portici and Resina. These noises, likely indicative of volcanic unrest, were most prominent in the western sector of the volcano. Ground deformations, including landslides and soil fracturing, were also observed, particularly on the eastern and western slopes of the mountain. These shifts in the landscape were signs of internal pressure building as magma moved toward the surface. Local vegetation showed signs of distress, with drooping plants and reports of animal disappearances, likely due to the emission of toxic volcanic gases.[8]
In addition to these signs, groundwater around the volcano showed unusual changes. Wells and springs began to produce muddy water, with some sources turning saline, indicating a disturbance in the underlying hydrogeological system. The most dramatic precursor was the intensifying seismic activity. Beginning with minor tremors in late November, the seismic activity escalated by December 15, with stronger quakes and the eventual opening of an eruptive fissure on the morning of December 16. These multiple signs of volcanic unrest clearly indicated that the eruption was imminent and provided critical insights into the complex behavior of Vesuvius before it erupted.[8]
Eruption Process
The eruption began on 16 December 1631, with the opening of a fissure vent on the western side of Vesuvius, close to the base of the volcanic cone.[9] The explosion caused a giant eruption column, which pushed by high pressure inside the volcano reached about 13 km altitude. According to William Hamilton "Giulio Cesare Braccini measured with a quadrant the elevation of the mass of clouds that was formed over Vesuvius during the eruption, and found it to exceed thirty miles in height".[10] The eruption column lasted around 8 hours. Fallout of vesiculated lapilli and lithic clasts occurred until the evening. During the night between 16 and 17 December the volcano produced discrete explosions accompanied by lapilli relapses.[7]
Another depiction of people witnessing the eruption and spreading word via horseback.
In the morning of 17 December a violent earthquake occurred, lasting a few minutes. Modern volcanologists have used descriptions from the event to estimate a magnitude of between 4 and 5.[11] The earthquake was immediately followed by the most violent phase of the eruption, characterized by pyroclastic flow activity. The Volcanic Explosivity Index was VEI-5, and it was a Plinian eruption that buried many villages under the resulting lava flows.[12] Large quantities of ashes and dust were ejected and several streams of molten lava poured out of the crater and down the sides of the mountain, overwhelming several villages, including Torre Annunziata, Torre del Greco and Ercolano.[13] Torrents of lahar were also created, adding to the devastation.
Tectonic Setting
Simplified tectonic context of Vesuvius
As part of the Campanian volcanic arc, the 1631 Vesuvius eruption occurred over the subduction zone formed by the collision between the African and Eurasian tectonic plates, where the oceanic African plate sinks beneath the continental Eurasian plate. [14] In the lower portion of the African plate, geophysical studies reveal a unique tectonic feature: a slab window, created as the lower portion of the subducting African plate tore and detached from the upper portion. This gap in the plate enables upwelling convection currents to interact with enriched mantle materials from the subducted slab, resulting in Vesuvius' distinct volcanic characteristics compared to the other volcanoes in the Campanian arc.
The slab window formed due to differential subduction velocities along the plate boundary, causing stress-induced tearing. This feature is bounded by two faults that accommodate horizontal movement between adjoining sections of the subduction zone. Arc-related magmatism also played a significant role in the lithospheric detachment, with the interaction of convection currents and varying subduction dynamics believed to have driven the slab tear. These processes have distinctly influenced the lithology of Vesuvius.
The 1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius produced a variety of volcanic materials, including tephra falls, pyroclastic flows, and lava flows, each with distinctive characteristics that have been extensively studied. These deposits provide critical insights into the dynamics of the eruption.
Tephra Fall Deposits
The tephra fall deposits from the 1631 eruption are divided into three distinct layers, each reflecting changes in eruptive style and magma composition:
Layer 1: The basal layer consists of small, light-colored vesiculated pumice with minimal lithic fragments. Its fine-grained nature suggests external water played a role in inhibiting vesiculation during this early phase.
Layer 2: This intermediate layer is darker and coarser, with pumice fragments containing crystals such as leucite and biotite. It represents a transition to more magmatic activity.
Layer 3: The uppermost layer is darker and coarser, containing dense, poorly vesiculated pumice and a high proportion of lithic fragments, including altered lava and sedimentary rocks. This layer exhibits reverse grading, indicating an increase in eruptive intensity.
Granulometric analyses reveal a systematic increase in grain size from Layer 1 to Layer 3, with a subsequent decrease in the finer-grained topmost portion (Layer 3').
Pyroclastic Flows and Surges
Pyroclastic flows were a significant component of the 1631 eruption, depositing thick, poorly sorted layers in the proximal areas. These deposits, characterized by lithic fragments and scoriaceous pumice, show evidence of high-energy emplacement. Surge deposits, found in localized areas, consist of well-sorted ash and pumice, indicating turbulent flow conditions.
Lava Flows
Lava effusions occurred during the later stages of the eruption, emerging from fractures on the southern slopes of the volcano. The lava flows are predominantly tephrite-phonolite in composition, containing minerals such as leucite, augite, and plagioclase. These flows extended towards the coastline, contributing to the reshaping of the landscape.
Volcanic deposits depicted from the more recent 1944 eruption at Mount Vesuvius
Quantitative Analysis
The 1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius has been analyzed quantitatively to estimate parameters such as eruption column height, mass discharge rates, and the physical properties of the deposits. These analyses provide a clearer picture of the eruption's scale and dynamics.
Eruption Column Height and Mass Discharge Rates
The height of the eruption column was reconstructed using historical accounts and lithic isopleth maps. The column reached its maximum height of approximately 28 kilometers during the eruption's peak phase. The eruption was characterized by three distinct phases, each associated with different column heights and discharge rates:
Phase 1: A column height of 16–20 km with a mass discharge rate of 8.9 × 10⁶ kg/s.
Phase 2: A column height of 25 km and an increased discharge rate of 2.0 × 10⁷ kg/s.
Phase 3: The peak phase, with a column height of 28 km and a mass discharge rate of 8.2 × 10⁷ kg/s.
The variations in column height and discharge rates reflect changes in eruptive dynamics, including transitions from phreatomagmatic to magmatic activity.
Granulometric and Chemical Analysis
Detailed granulometric studies of the tephra deposits revealed trends in grain size and composition:
An increase in grain size and density of pumice from the base to the top of the sequence.
A higher lithic content in the upper layers, indicating vent erosion and increased magma fragmentation.
Chemical analyses showed a progression from phonotephritic to tephrite-phonolitic magma, with the upper layers of the deposit containing denser, less vesiculated pumice.
Volcanic deposits from Mount Vesuvius called Puzzolane stones
Fragmentation and Dispersal
Using the dispersal and fragmentation indices, the deposits were classified into different eruptive styles:
Layer 1: Surtseyan activity associated with external water interaction.
Layer 2: Subplinian activity driven by magmatic volatiles.
Layer 3: Vulcanian activity characterized by denser and less vesiculated magma.
These indices also demonstrate the influence of wind and column dynamics on the dispersal of tephra, with fallout predominantly affecting the northeast sector of the volcano.
Effects and Casualties
The 1631 eruption was considered to be of minor proportions regarding its eruptive magnitude and erupted volumes compared to the AD 79 eruption. However, there was a lot of damage that the region sustained due to the eruption.[9] It is estimated that between 4,000 people were killed by the eruption, making it the highest death toll for a volcanic disaster in the Mediterranean in the last 1800 years.[9] Pyroclastic flows, ash falls, and toxic gases caused a majority of the deaths in nearby villages, including Torre del Greco, as many people ended up being suffocated or buried under debris.[16] The list of casualties might have been higher still, had it not been for a rescue mission conducted three days later to save stranded villagers.[17]
In addition, the infrastructure of the region was severely damaged by several factors. Fast-moving pyroclastic flows and lahars not only swarmed and killed villagers but quickly destroyed many buildings as well.[18] Many buildings were also weakened by seismic activity occurring throughout the eruption process, and eventually collapsed under the weight of accumulated ash or were wiped out by succeeding lava flows.[19] The town of Naples was not directly damaged by the eruption, but food supply from the Vesuvius neighborhood was interrupted. Ash falls contributed to the destruction of farmlands, killing plant life and causing land infertility on a large scale.[20] The accumulation of ash and debris also blocked ports, which limited the trade that Naples had once thrived from.[21] The loss of trade coupled with the loss of agriculture not only stopped the food supply but ruined the economy as well.[22]
Painting depicting villagers and townsfolk escaping the volcanic eruption.
Additionally, many townsfolk living in towns surrounding Vesuvius had lost their homes and their livelihoods. Seeking a way to rebuild their lives, over 20,000 refugees rushed into the town of Naples, the heart of the kingdom.[11] This created problems of public order that worsened the existing issues that plagued Naples.[19]
Due to the proximity of Vesuvius to Naples, this eruption was broadly described by contemporary authors and its study affected the evolution of natural philosophy in the first half of the 17th century. Scholars flocked to Naples to study the phenomenon and to collect mineral specimens from the mountainside. Some historians argue that this investigation and engagement with Vesuvius was paramount to the development of modern volcanology.[23]
By the 1631 eruption, the summit of Mount Vesuvius had been reduced by 450m, making its total height lower than that of Mount Somma.[24] The eruption marked the beginning of a long period of almost continuous eruptive activity by Vesuvius, that lasted until the eighteenth century.[25]
Change in Scientific Understanding
The 1631 eruption jump-started a massive shift in the understanding of volcanic events. Previously, volcanic events were largely regarded as acts of divine intervention. During this time period, many people believed that a volcano erupted because the Gods were attempting to punish humans for their failure to adhere to proper morals.[22] Much of the Roman population that once populated the area believed that the volcano erupted because of Vulcan, the god of fire and volcanoes, who demonstrated his power by sparking volcanic eruptions. The Romans also attributed eruptions to other gods from their pantheon, including Jupiter(the king of the gods) and Neptune(the god of earthquakes) who was believed to be responsible for seismic activity that occurred before an eruption.[16]
Statue depicting Vulcan, the god of fire, who was often associated with volcanic eruptions.
The Romans assumed that they were being punished for angering the gods. It was believed that humans incurred the wrath of the gods for a number of reasons. Among other things, a failure to properly observe rituals and morals was commonly used to justify the anger of the gods.[19] The idea of divine intervention was attributed to the 1631 eruption as well. Although the population in the region was predominantly Roman Catholic at this time period, so they believed their singular god was punishing the town for its collective decadence and immorality.[18]
As mentioned previously, many scholars flocked to Naples to study the eruption. The initiative to understand volcanic events grew out of a need to limit damages and loss of life in the future(which was highlighted by the 1631 eruption). This growing interest was also attributed to a spread of intellectualism that would later transform into the Enlightenment.[21] Additionally, the 17th century saw a spike in printing technology and an increased usage of the printing press.[20] More and more people were documenting and spreading information around the world via paper. Regarding the eruption, scholars such as Giuseppe Palmieri could record observations and communicate their ideas on what may have caused the eruption.[19] As a result, the 1631 eruption became one the first well-documented volcanic events in history.[22]
At this point in time, scholars were beginning to abandon explanations that relied on mythological and religious beliefs. Instead, they started to search for more rational explanations that showed why natural phenomena such as the 1631 eruption were happening. The studies conducted on this eruption in particular were part of the movement towards a greater scientific understanding.
The 1631 eruption further promoted an ongoing increase in scientific and intellectual curiosity, in which people were changing their ways of thinking.
Closer Look at Vesuvius Observatory
Building for Vesuvius Observatory in 1841 , the oldest volcanology institute in the world.Image of Vesuvius Observatory and Mount Vesuvius(c. 19th Century)
In 1841, around 200 years after the 1631 eruption, the Vesuvius Observatory was established.[11] This marked a huge milestone in the study of volcanology, as it was the first ever volcanological observatory. As a matter of fact, The designs and implementations for many later observatories were inspired by the Vesuvius Observatory.[21] In particular, the Vesuvius Observatory was established by the Italian government as a means to keep watch over Vesuvius, which had multiple large-scale eruptions throughout its history. The despair and destruction caused by the 1631 eruption underscored the need for a deeper understanding of volcanoes. Thus, the purpose of the observatory was both to predict and prepare for dangerous eruptions and to enhance the common understanding of volcanology in the modern age.[26]
The observatory was placed on the southern slope of Mount Vesuvius(far from the crater to stay out of danger), in a Campanian town called Herculaneum.[11] Here, it could monitor changes in gas emissions, seismic activity, and deformation by observing the natural patterns and processes that occurred.[20] For example, in the 1800s the observatory would employ tools such as seismometers, used to detect seismic activity that might precede an eruption. Additionally, barometers and thermometers were also used to measure changes in atmospheric pressure and temperature.[19]
Today, the observatory belongs to an Italian research organization called the National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV).[11] As in the past, the observatory continues to contribute readily to improving early warning systems and risk analysis.[22] It also continues to serve as a center for volcanological research, and publishes findings and observations on the regular to boost public awareness.[27]
Possibility of a Future Eruption
Vesuvius is considered as an active volcano that has repeatedly demonstrated the potential to host devastating volcanic events. Being that the volcano is located in a subduction zone, magma is constantly being generated in this area via flux melting.[11]
In other words, the lowering of the African plate into the much hotter Earth is releasing water, which lowers the melting point of the above Eurasian plate. So while the African Plate is subducting under the Eurasian plate, the magma chamber beneath Vesuvius is constantly being supplied with magma. For this reason, a future eruption is always possible.
Mount Vesuvius erupting in 1755, seen from the west, with two small views of the volcano in 1631, and of the volcano's crater in section.A diagram that depicts a tectonic setting similar to that of Mount Vesuvius and the Campanian Volcanic Arc.
Other factors also play into the expectation for an eruption. Historically, Vesuvius has erupted on a large scale every 300-400 years.[19] The Vesuvius Observatory has also detected bulging in the Earth’s crust; release of gasses such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and water; and seismic activity have all been observed on multiple occasions within the past century.[11]
While it is not possible to predict the exact timing of the eruption, the Italian government and the INGV are continuously monitoring the volcano to be aware of a potential volcanic event. The government has made and will continue to improve warning systems and evacuation plans to deal with such a disaster.
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. The process that forms volcanoes is called volcanism.
Mount Vesuvius is a somma–stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.
A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many alternating layers (strata) of hardened lava and tephra. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and explosive eruptions. Some have collapsed summit craters called calderas. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and solidifies before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high to intermediate levels of silica, with lesser amounts of less viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but can travel as far as 8 km (5 mi).
Volcanology is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term volcanology is derived from the Latin word vulcan. Vulcan was the ancient Roman god of fire.
Mount Mazama is a complex volcano in the western U.S. state of Oregon, in a segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and Cascade Range. The volcano is in Klamath County, in the southern Cascades, 60 miles (97 km) north of the Oregon–California border. Its collapse, due to the eruption of magma emptying the underlying magma chamber, formed a caldera that holds Crater Lake. Mount Mazama originally had an elevation of 12,000 feet (3,700 m), but following its climactic eruption this was reduced to 8,157 feet (2,486 m). Crater Lake is 1,943 feet (592 m) deep, the deepest freshwater body in the U.S. and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada.
The volcanism of Italy is due chiefly to the presence, a short distance to the south, of the boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the African Plate. Italy is a volcanically active country, containing the only active volcanoes in mainland Europe. The lava erupted by Italy's volcanoes is thought to result from the subduction and melting of one plate below another.
The Phlegraean Fields is a large caldera volcano west of Naples, Italy. It is part of the Campanian volcanic arc, which includes Mount Vesuvius, about 9 km east of Naples. The Phlegraean Fields is monitored by the Vesuvius Observatory. It was declared a regional park in 2003.
Plinian eruptions or Vesuvian eruptions are volcanic eruptions marked by their similarity to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which destroyed the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The eruption was described in a letter written by Pliny the Younger, after the death of his uncle Pliny the Elder.
Cerro Azul, sometimes referred to as Quizapu, is an active stratovolcano in the Maule Region of central Chile, immediately south of Descabezado Grande. Part of the South Volcanic Zone of the Andes, its summit is 3,788 meters (12,428 ft) above sea level, and is capped by a summit crater that is 500 meters (1,600 ft) wide and opens to the north. Beneath the summit, the volcano features numerous scoria cones and flank vents.
In volcanology, a Strombolian eruption is a type of volcanic eruption with relatively mild blasts, typically having a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 1 or 2. Strombolian eruptions consist of ejection of incandescent cinders, lapilli, and volcanic bombs, to altitudes of tens to a few hundreds of metres. The eruptions are small to medium in volume, with sporadic violence. This type of eruption is named for the Italian volcano Stromboli.
Lascar is a stratovolcano in Chile within the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, a volcanic arc that spans Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. It is the most active volcano in the region, with records of eruptions going back to 1848. It is composed of two separate cones with several summit craters. The westernmost crater of the eastern cone is presently active. Volcanic activity is characterized by constant release of volcanic gas and occasional vulcanian eruptions.
A pyroclastic fall deposit is a uniform deposit of material which has been ejected from a volcanic eruption or plume such as an ash fall or tuff. Pyroclastic fallout deposits are a result of:
Ballistic transport of ejecta such as volcanic blocks, volcanic bombs and lapilli from volcanic explosions
Deposition of material from convective clouds associated with pyroclastic flows such as coignimbrite falls
Ejecta carried in gas streaming from a vent. The material under the action of gravity will settle out from an eruption plume or eruption column
Ejecta settling from an eruptive plume or eruption column that is displaced laterally by wind currents and is dispersed over great distances
The Mount Meager massif is a group of volcanic peaks in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc of western North America, it is located 150 km (93 mi) north of Vancouver at the northern end of the Pemberton Valley and reaches a maximum elevation of 2,680 m (8,790 ft). The massif is capped by several eroded volcanic edifices, including lava domes, volcanic plugs and overlapping piles of lava flows; these form at least six major summits including Mount Meager which is the second highest of the massif.
Nazko Cone is a small potentially active basaltic cinder cone in central British Columbia, Canada, located 75 km west of Quesnel and 150 kilometers southwest of Prince George. It is considered the easternmost volcano in the Anahim Volcanic Belt. The small tree-covered cone rises 120 m above the Chilcotin-Nechako Plateau and rests on glacial till. It was formed in three episodes of activity, the first of which took place during the Pleistocene interglacial stage about 340,000 years ago. The second stage produced a large hyaloclastite scoria mound erupted beneath the Cordilleran Ice Sheet during the Pleistocene. Its last eruption produced two small lava flows that traveled 1 km to the west, along with a blanket of volcanic ash that extends several km to the north and east of the cone.
Several types of volcanic eruptions—during which material is expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure—have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed. Some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series.
Submarine eruptions are volcano eruptions which take place beneath the surface of water. These occur at constructive margins, subduction zones and within tectonic plates due to hotspots. This eruption style is far more prevalent than subaerial activity. For example, it is believed that 70 to 80% of the Earth's magma output takes place at mid-ocean ridges.
The Canadian Cascade Arc, also called the Canadian Cascades, is the Canadian segment of the North American Cascade Volcanic Arc. Located entirely within the Canadian province of British Columbia, it extends from the Cascade Mountains in the south to the Coast Mountains in the north. Specifically, the southern end of the Canadian Cascades begin at the Canada–United States border. However, the specific boundaries of the northern end are not precisely known and the geology in this part of the volcanic arc is poorly understood. It is widely accepted by geologists that the Canadian Cascade Arc extends through the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains. However, others have expressed concern that the volcanic arc possibly extends further north into the Kitimat Ranges, another subdivision of the Coast Mountains, and even as far north as Haida Gwaii.
Calabozos is a Holocene caldera in central Chile's Maule Region. Part of the Chilean Andes' volcanic segment, it is considered a member of the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), one of the three distinct volcanic belts of South America. This most active section of the Andes runs along central Chile's western edge, and includes more than 70 of Chile's stratovolcanoes and volcanic fields. Calabozos lies in an extremely remote area of poorly glaciated mountains.
The Bridge River Vent is a volcanic crater in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is located 51 km (32 mi) west of Bralorne on the northeastern flank of the Mount Meager massif. With an elevation of 1,524 m (5,000 ft), it lies on the steep northern face of Plinth Peak, a 2,677 m (8,783 ft) high volcanic peak comprising the northern portion of Meager. The vent rises above the western shoulder of the Pemberton Valley and represents the northernmost volcanic feature of the Mount Meager massif.
Tata Sabaya is a 5,430-metre (17,810 ft) high volcano in Bolivia. It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone, one of several volcanic belts in the Andes which are separated by gaps without volcanic activity. This section of the Andes was volcanically active since the Jurassic, with an episode of strong ignimbritic volcanism occurring during the Miocene. Tata Sabaya lies in a thinly populated region north of the Salar de Coipasa salt pan.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Mitchell, Robert. “Vesuvius Observatory and Its Role in Monitoring Volcanoes.” Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 48, no. 12, 2022, pp. 1760-1772.
↑ Miller, William John (1927). An Introduction to Physical Geology With a Special Reference to North America. New York: D. Van Nostrand Company. p.325.
1 2 De' Medici, Roberto. “The Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Mediterranean Populations.” Journal of Historical Geology, vol. 30, no. 2, 2021, pp. 125-145.
1 2 Thompson, Livia. Volcanic Events in the Ancient World: The Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Routledge, 2018.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Mastrolorenzo, Giuseppe, et al. “Volcanic Hazards and Management at Mount Vesuvius.” Scientific Journal of Volcanology, vol. 34, no. 4, 2021, pp. 134-148.
1 2 3 Snyder, William P. The Volcanology of Mount Vesuvius: Insights and Approaches to Understanding Eruptions. Oxford University Press, 2022.
1 2 3 Taylor, Holly M. Eruptions of Mount Vesuvius: A Geographical and Cultural Study. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019.
1 2 3 4 Goehring, Miles. “Historical Eruptions of Mount Vesuvius: The 79 AD and 1631 Events.” Natural Disasters and Society, vol. 11, no. 3, 2020, pp. 98-112.
↑ Gandolfi, Maurizio. “Volcanic Eruptions and Their Impact on Italian Culture.” Journal of Mediterranean Studies, vol. 44, no. 1, 2019, pp. 75-89.
↑ “Geological Monitoring at Vesuvius Observatory.” Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV), 2023, https://www.ingv.it/en/. Accessed 22 Nov. 2024.
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