| 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships | ||
|---|---|---|
 | ||
| Track events | ||
| 60 m | men | women |
| 400 m | men | women |
| 800 m | men | women |
| 1500 m | men | women |
| 3000 m | men | women |
| 60 m hurdles | men | women |
| 4 × 400 m relay | men | women |
| Field events | ||
| High jump | men | women |
| Pole vault | men | women |
| Long jump | men | women |
| Triple jump | men | women |
| Shot put | men | women |
| Combined events | ||
| Pentathlon | women | |
| Heptathlon | men | |
The Women's 4 x 400 metres relay event at the 2006 IAAF World Indoor Championships was held on March 12.
* Runners who participated in the heats only and received medals.
Qualification: First 2 teams of each heat (Q) plus the next 2 fastest (q) advance to the final.
| Rank | Heat | Nation | Athletes | Time | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 |  Russia | Yulia Gushchina, Tatyana Veshkurova, Tatyana Levina, Natalya Antyukh | 3:25.91 | Q |
| 2 | 2 |  Belarus | Natallia Solohub, Anna Kozak, Yulyana Yushchanka, Ilona Usovich | 3:28.47 | Q, NR |
| 3 | 2 |  United States | Debbie Dunn, Tiffany Williams, Monica Hargrove, Kia Davis | 3:29.44 | Q |
| 4 | 2 |  Great Britain | Melanie Purkiss, Jennifer Meadows, Emma Duck, Helen Karagounis | 3:29.59 | q, NR |
| 5 | 1 |  Jamaica | Shellene Williams, Ronetta Smith, Moya Thompson, Allison Beckford | 3:30.03 | Q, NR |
| 6 | 1 |  Poland | Grażyna Prokopek, Monika Bejnar, Marta Chrust-Rożej, Małgorzata Pskit | 3:30.18 | q, SB |
| 7 | 1 |  Bulgaria | Monika Gachevska, Mariyana Dimitrova, Teodora Kolarova, Tezzhan Naimova | 3:34.47 | |
| 8 | 2 |  Ukraine | Anastasiya Rabchenyuk, Olha Zavhorodnya, Oksana Shcherbak, Liliya Lobanova | 3:35.80 | SB |
| Rank | Nation | Athletes | Time | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 | Russia | Tatyana Levina, Natalya Nazarova, Olesya Forsheva, Natalya Antyukh | 3:24.91 | |
 | United States | Debbie Dunn, Tiffany Williams, Monica Hargrove, Mary Wineberg | 3:28.63 | SB |
 | Belarus | Natallia Solohub, Anna Kozak, Yulyana Yushchanka, Ilona Usovich | 3:28.65 | |
| 4 | Poland | Grażyna Prokopek, Monika Bejnar, Marta Chrust-Rożej, Małgorzata Pskit | 3:28.95 | NR |
| 5 | Jamaica | Shellene Williams, Novlene Williams, Moya Thompson, Allison Beckford | 3:29.54 | NR |
| 6 | Great Britain | Melanie Purkiss, Jennifer Meadows, Emma Duck, Helen Karagounis | 3:29.70 |
Calorimetry is the science or act of measuring changes in state variables of a body for the purpose of deriving the heat transfer associated with changes of its state due, for example, to chemical reactions, physical changes, or phase transitions under specified constraints. Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat and the Greek word μέτρον (metron), meaning measure. Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the founder of the science of calorimetry.
Entropy is a scientific concept as well as a measurable physical property that is most commonly associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. The term and the concept are used in diverse fields, from classical thermodynamics, where it was first recognized, to the microscopic description of nature in statistical physics, and to the principles of information theory. It has found far-ranging applications in chemistry and physics, in biological systems and their relation to life, in cosmology, economics, sociology, weather science, climate change, and information systems including the transmission of information in telecommunication.
Enthalpy, a property of a thermodynamic system, is the sum of the system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant pressure, which is conveniently provided by the large ambient atmosphere. The pressure–volume term expresses the work required to establish the system's physical dimensions, i.e. to make room for it by displacing its surroundings. The pressure-volume term is very small for solids and liquids at common conditions, and fairly small for gases. Therefore, enthalpy is a stand-in for energy in chemical systems; bond, lattice, solvation and other "energies" in chemistry are actually enthalpy differences. As a state function, enthalpy depends only on the final configuration of internal energy, pressure, and volume, not on the path taken to achieve it.
In thermodynamics and engineering, a heat engine is a system that converts heat to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a higher state temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat source generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to the high temperature state. The working substance generates work in the working body of the engine while transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a low temperature state. During this process some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any system with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid. During this process, some heat is normally lost to the surroundings and is not converted to work. Also, some energy is unusable because of friction and drag.
In thermodynamics, the specific heat capacity (symbol cp) of a substance is the heat capacity of a sample of the substance divided by the mass of the sample. Specific heat is also sometimes referred to as massic heat capacity. Informally, it is the amount of heat that must be added to one unit of mass of the substance in order to cause an increase of one unit in temperature. The SI unit of specific heat capacity is joule per kelvin per kilogram, J⋅kg−1⋅K−1. For example, the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 K is 4184 joules, so the specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by , , or .
Thermal conduction is the transfer of internal energy by microscopic collisions of particles and movement of electrons within a body. The colliding particles, which include molecules, atoms and electrons, transfer disorganized microscopic kinetic and potential energy when joined, known as internal energy. Conduction takes place in most phases: solid, liquid, and plasma.
The second law of thermodynamics is a physical law of thermodynamics about heat and loss in its conversion. It can be stated in various ways, the simplest being
Not all heat energy can be converted into work.
A vacuum flask is an insulating storage vessel that greatly lengthens the time over which its contents remain hotter or cooler than the flask's surroundings. Invented by Sir James Dewar in 1892, the vacuum flask consists of two flasks, placed one within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two flasks is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum which significantly reduces heat transfer by conduction or convection.
Latent heat is energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system, during a constant-temperature process — usually a first-order phase transition.
In mathematics and physics, the heat equation is a certain partial differential equation. Solutions of the heat equation are sometimes known as caloric functions. The theory of the heat equation was first developed by Joseph Fourier in 1822 for the purpose of modeling how a quantity such as heat diffuses through a given region.
Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of heat to be supplied to an object to produce a unit change in its temperature. The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K).
Carnot's theorem, developed in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, also called Carnot's rule, is a principle that specifies limits on the maximum efficiency any heat engine can obtain. The efficiency of a Carnot engine depends solely on the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.
In thermodynamics, an isobaric process is a type of thermodynamic process in which the pressure of the system stays constant: ΔP = 0. The heat transferred to the system does work, but also changes the internal energy (U) of the system. This article uses the physics sign convention for work, where positive work is work done by the system. Using this convention, by the first law of thermodynamics,
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The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle describing the process by which certain heat engines, such as steam turbines or reciprocating steam engines, allow mechanical work to be extracted from a fluid as it moves between a heat source and heat sink. The Rankine cycle is named after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish polymath professor at Glasgow University.
A thermodynamic cycle consists of a linked sequence of thermodynamic processes that involve transfer of heat and work into and out of the system, while varying pressure, temperature, and other state variables within the system, and that eventually returns the system to its initial state. In the process of passing through a cycle, the working fluid (system) may convert heat from a warm source into useful work, and dispose of the remaining heat to a cold sink, thereby acting as a heat engine. Conversely, the cycle may be reversed and use work to move heat from a cold source and transfer it to a warm sink thereby acting as a heat pump. At every point in the cycle, the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, so the cycle is reversible.
In thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency is a dimensionless performance measure of a device that uses thermal energy, such as an internal combustion engine, steam turbine, steam engine, boiler, furnace,refrigerator, ACs etc.
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In thermodynamics, heat is energy in transfer to or from a thermodynamic system, by mechanisms other than thermodynamic work or transfer of matter. The various mechanisms of energy transfer that define heat are stated in the next section of this article.