In computer architecture, 26-bitintegers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are 26 bits wide, and thus can represent unsigned values up to 67,108,863. Two examples of computer processors that featured 26-bit memory addressing are certain second generation IBM System/370mainframe computer models introduced in 1981 (and several subsequent models), which had 26-bit physical addresses but had only the same 24-bit virtual addresses as earlier models, and the first generations of ARM processors.
As data processing needs continued to grow, IBM and their customers faced challenges directly addressing larger memory sizes. In what ended up being a short-term "emergency" solution, a pair of IBM's second wave of System/370 models, the 3033 and 3081, introduced 26-bit real memory addressing, increasing the System/370's amount of physical memory that could be attached by a factor of 4 from the previous 24-bit limit of 16MB. IBM referred to 26-bit addressing as "extended real addressing," and some subsequent models also included 26-bit support. However, only 2 years later, IBM introduced 31-bit memory addressing, expanding both physical and virtual addresses to 31 bits, with its System/370-XA models, and even the popular 3081 was upgradeable to XA standard.
Given 26-bit's brief history as the state-of-the-art in memory addressing available in IBM's model range, and given that virtual addresses were still limited to 24 bits, software exploitation of 26-bit mode was limited. The few customers that exploited 26-bit mode eventually adjusted their applications to support 31-bit addressing,[citation needed] and IBM dropped support for 26-bit mode after several years producing models supporting 24-bit, 26-bit, and 31-bit modes. The 26-bit mode is the only addressing mode that IBM removed from its line of mainframe computers descended from the System/360. All the other addressing modes, including now 64-bit mode, are supported in current model mainframes.
Early ARM processors
In the ARM processor architecture, 26-bit refers to the design used in the original ARM processors where the program counter (PC) and Processor Status Register (PSR) were combined into one 32-bit register (R15), the status flags filling the high 6 bits and the program counter taking up the lower 26 bits.
In fact, because the program counter is always word-aligned the lowest two bits are always zero which allowed the designers to reuse these two bits to hold the processor's mode bits too. The four modes allowed were USR26, SVC26, IRQ26, FIQ26; contrast this with the 32 possible modes available when the program status was separated from the program counter in more recent ARM architectures.
This design enabled more efficient program execution, as the program counter and status flags could be saved and restored with a single operation.[citation needed] This resulted in faster subroutine calls and interrupt response than traditional designs, which would have to do two register loads or saves when calling or returning from a subroutine.
Despite having a 32-bit ALU and word-length, processors based on ARM architecture version 1 and 2 had only a 26-bit PC and address bus, and were consequently limited to 64MiB of addressable memory. This was still a vast amount of memory at the time, but because of this limitation, architectures since have included various steps away from the original 26-bit design.
The ARM architecture version 3 introduced a 32-bit PC and separate PSR, as well as a 32-bit address bus, allowing 4 GiB of memory to be addressed. The change in the PC/PSR layout caused incompatibility with code written for previous architectures, so the processor also included a 26-bit compatibility mode which used the old PC/PSR combination. The processor could still address 4 GB in this mode, but could not execute anything above address 0x3FFFFFC (64MB). This mode was used by RISC OS running on the Acorn Risc PC to utilise the new processors while retaining compatibility with existing software.
ARM architecture version 4 made the support of the 26-bit addressing modes optional, and ARM architecture version 5 onwards has removed them entirely.
IBM mainframes are large computer systems produced by IBM since 1952. During the 1960s and 1970s, IBM dominated the computer market with the 7000 series and the later System/360, followed by the System/370. Current mainframe computers in IBM's line of business computers are developments of the basic design of the System/360.
In electronics and computer science, a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) is a computer architecture designed to simplify the individual instructions given to the computer to accomplish tasks. Compared to the instructions given to a complex instruction set computer (CISC), a RISC computer might require more instructions in order to accomplish a task because the individual instructions are written in simpler code. The goal is to offset the need to process more instructions by increasing the speed of each instruction, in particular by implementing an instruction pipeline, which may be simpler to achieve given simpler instructions.
In computer science, an instruction set architecture (ISA) is an abstract model that generally defines how software controls the CPU in a computer or a family of computers. A device or program that executes instructions described by that ISA, such as a central processing unit (CPU), is called an implementation of that ISA.
The IBM System/370 (S/370) is a range of IBM mainframe computers announced as the successors to the System/360 family on June 30, 1970. The series mostly maintains backward compatibility with the S/360, allowing an easy migration path for customers; this, plus improved performance, were the dominant themes of the product announcement.
The 801 was an experimental central processing unit (CPU) design developed by IBM during the 1970s. It is considered to be the first modern RISC design, relying on processor registers for all computations and eliminating the many variant addressing modes found in CISC designs. Originally developed as the processor for a telephone switch, it was later used as the basis for a minicomputer and a number of products for their mainframe line. The initial design was a 24-bit processor; that was soon replaced by 32-bit implementations of the same concepts and the original 24-bit 801 was used only into the early 1980s.
The Motorola 68000 series is a family of 32-bit complex instruction set computer (CISC) microprocessors. During the 1980s and early 1990s, they were popular in personal computers and workstations and were the primary competitors of Intel's x86 microprocessors. They were best known as the processors used in the early Apple Macintosh, the Sharp X68000, the Commodore Amiga, the Sinclair QL, the Atari ST and Falcon, the Atari Jaguar, the Sega Genesis and Sega CD, the Philips CD-i, the Capcom System I (Arcade), the AT&T UNIX PC, the Tandy Model 16/16B/6000, the Sun Microsystems Sun-1, Sun-2 and Sun-3, the NeXT Computer, NeXTcube, NeXTstation, and NeXTcube Turbo, early Silicon Graphics IRIS workstations, the Aesthedes, computers from MASSCOMP, the Texas Instruments TI-89/TI-92 calculators, the Palm Pilot, the Control Data Corporation CDCNET Device Interface, the VTech Precomputer Unlimited and the Space Shuttle. Although no modern desktop computers are based on processors in the 680x0 series, derivative processors are still widely used in embedded systems.
In computer architecture, 32-bit computing refers to computer systems with a processor, memory, and other major system components that operate on data in 32-bit units. Compared to smaller bit widths, 32-bit computers can perform large calculations more efficiently and process more data per clock cycle. Typical 32-bit personal computers also have a 32-bit address bus, permitting up to 4 GB of RAM to be accessed, far more than previous generations of system architecture allowed.
In computer architecture, 64-bit integers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are 64 bits wide. Also, 64-bit central processing units (CPU) and arithmetic logic units (ALU) are those that are based on processor registers, address buses, or data buses of that size. A computer that uses such a processor is a 64-bit computer.
VM is a family of IBM virtual machine operating systems used on IBM mainframes System/370, System/390, zSeries, System z and compatible systems, including the Hercules emulator for personal computers.
Addressing modes are an aspect of the instruction set architecture in most central processing unit (CPU) designs. The various addressing modes that are defined in a given instruction set architecture define how the machine language instructions in that architecture identify the operand(s) of each instruction. An addressing mode specifies how to calculate the effective memory address of an operand by using information held in registers and/or constants contained within a machine instruction or elsewhere.
The ROMP is a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) microprocessor designed by IBM in the late 1970s. It is also known as the Research OPD Miniprocessor and 032. The ROMP was originally developed for office equipment and small computers, intended as a follow-on to the mid-1970s IBM OPD Mini Processor microprocessor, which was used in the IBM Office System/6 word-processing system. The first examples became available in 1981, and it was first used commercially in the IBM RT PC announced in January 1986. For a time, the RT PC was planned to be a personal computer, with ROMP replacing the Intel 8088 found in the IBM Personal Computer. However, the RT PC was later repositioned as an engineering and scientific workstation computer. A later CMOS version of the ROMP was first used in the coprocessor board for the IBM 6152 Academic System introduced in 1988, and it later appeared in some models of the RT PC.
The Clipper architecture is a 32-bit RISC-like instruction set architecture designed by Fairchild Semiconductor. The architecture never enjoyed much market success, and the only computer manufacturers to create major product lines using Clipper processors were Intergraph and High Level Hardware, although Opus Systems offered a product based on the Clipper as part of its Personal Mainframe range. The first processors using the Clipper architecture were designed and sold by Fairchild, but the division responsible for them was subsequently sold to Intergraph in 1987; Intergraph continued work on Clipper processors for use in its own systems.
z/Architecture, initially and briefly called ESA Modal Extensions (ESAME), is IBM's 64-bit complex instruction set computer (CISC) instruction set architecture, implemented by its mainframe computers. IBM introduced its first z/Architecture-based system, the z900, in late 2000. Later z/Architecture systems include the IBM z800, z990, z890, System z9, System z10, zEnterprise 196, zEnterprise 114, zEC12, zBC12, z13, z14, z15 and z16.
A logical partition (LPAR) is a subset of a computer's hardware resources, virtualized as a separate computer. In effect, a physical machine can be partitioned into multiple logical partitions, each hosting a separate instance of an operating system.
In computing, channel I/O is a high-performance input/output (I/O) architecture that is implemented in various forms on a number of computer architectures, especially on mainframe computers. In the past, channels were generally implemented with custom devices, variously named channel, I/O processor, I/O controller, I/O synchronizer, or DMA controller.
In computer architecture, 31-bit integers, memory addresses, or other data units are those that are 31 bits wide.
An instruction set architecture (ISA) is an abstract model of a computer, also referred to as computer architecture. A realization of an ISA is called an implementation. An ISA permits multiple implementations that may vary in performance, physical size, and monetary cost ; because the ISA serves as the interface between software and hardware. Software that has been written for an ISA can run on different implementations of the same ISA. This has enabled binary compatibility between different generations of computers to be easily achieved, and the development of computer families. Both of these developments have helped to lower the cost of computers and to increase their applicability. For these reasons, the ISA is one of the most important abstractions in computing today.
IBM System/370-XA is an instruction set architecture introduced by IBM in 1983 for the IBM 308X processors. It extends the IBM System/370 architecture to support 31-bit virtual and physical addresses, and includes a redesigned I/O architecture.
The IBM 308X is a line of mainframe computers, of which the first model, the Model 3081 Processor Complex, was introduced November 12, 1980. It consisted of a 3081 Processor Unit with supporting units.
IBM Enterprise Systems Architecture is an instruction set architecture introduced by IBM as ESA/370 in 1988. It is based on the IBM System/370-XA architecture.
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