Acquired hand deformity

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Acquired hand deformity
Specialty Rheumatology   OOjs UI icon edit-ltr-progressive.svg
Symptoms Joint pain, swelling, stiffness, redness, muscle weakness
Complications Possible grip issues, limited finger movement, impaired joint function, diminished functional abilities, functional limitations, numbness
CausesTrauma, rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, osteoarthritis, cerebral palsy
Diagnostic method Nerve testing, physical examinations, lab tests, imaging examinations
TreatmentMedications, occupational/physical therapy, splinting, surgical procedures

Acquired hand deformity refers to the structural or functional abnormalities that develop in the hand. There are multiple varying causes of acquired hand deformity, triggering significant consequences and complications. Trauma, including blunt force, penetrating injuries, burns, and sports-related incidents, is a primary cause of acquired hand deformities. Inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis, and systemic lupus erythematosus can also contribute to hand deformities by affecting the joints. Degenerative arthritis, specifically osteoarthritis, functions to evoke impaired hand function due to the gradual deterioration of cartilage. Neurological disorders like cerebral palsy can result in hand contractures due to increased muscle tone and stiffness. There are different types of acquired hand deformities, each with distinct characteristics and underlying causes, such as boutonnière deformity, Dupuytren's contracture, gamekeeper's thumb, hand osteoarthritis deformity, mallet finger, swan-neck deformity, ulnar claw hand, among many others.

Contents

The consequences and complications of acquired hand deformities vary based on the nature of their causes. Acute-event deformities can limit finger movement and produce possible grip implications, while chronic-event deformities may also progressively impair joint function. Abnormal joint growth, burn-specific trauma, and hand amputation evoke functional limitations. Diagnostic pathways are imperative to assess the status and extent of deformities, evaluate nerve function, and visualise damage. These pathways can involve nerve testing, physical examinations, lab tests, and imaging examinations.

Current treatments for hand deformities can be classified by non-surgical or surgical methods. Non-surgical options aim to reduce symptoms and maintain function, such as medicinal treatments like corticosteroids, physical therapy, and splinting. Surgical procedures, however, are rather reserved for extreme cases, but this depends on the characteristics of the deformity.

Types

There is a wide range of acquired hand deformities that can manifest in different ways. Some common types include:

An image of a hand depicting the locations of PIP, DIP, and MIP joints. DIP, PIP and MCP joints of hand.jpg
An image of a hand depicting the locations of PIP, DIP, and MIP joints.

Boutonnière deformity

Boutonnière deformity is depicted by injury to the central slip where the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) remains flexed while the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP) hyperextends... [1] Central slip is the tendon on the top of the finger attached to the middle bone of the finger, aiding the straightening of the middle PIP joint [1]

The primary cause of boutonnière deformity is trauma, such as blunt force, lacerations, or dislocations. Rupture of the central slip occurs as a result of forceful impact on the dorsal (top) side of a flexed middle joint of a finger. [1] Severing of the central slip by lacerations or a dislocation of the middle phalanx towards the bottom of the finger causes the tendon to tear off the bone [1]

A secondary cause of boutonnière deformity is rheumatoid arthritis causing chronic inflammation that eventually results in tendon damage. [2]

Dupuytren's contracture

Osteoarthritis in the left hand index finger of an affected patient Osteoarthritis in the left hand index finger.jpg
Osteoarthritis in the left hand index finger of an affected patient

Dupuytren's contracture is characterised by the thickening and tightening of fibrous tissue layers in the palm. [3] However, the causes of this progressive condition remain unknown. [3]

Gamekeeper's thumb/ Skier's thumb

Gamekeeper's thumb, also known as skier's thumb, is characterised by a diminished ability to grasp or pinch with the thumb due to damage to the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL). [4] Gamekeeper's thumb can be caused by acute injury or chronic overuse, often arousing from a fall where the hand is extended that leads to forceful separation of the thumb from the index finger. [4] This motion, thereby, results in the stretching or tearing of the UCL. [4]

Hand osteoarthritis deformity

Mallet finger presentation on the right hand middle finger of an affected patient Mallet Finger Injury.jpg
Mallet finger presentation on the right hand middle finger of an affected patient

Hand osteoarthritis deformity refers to the structural changes in the hand joints that occur as a result of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis commonly affects three main sites in the hand: the base of the thumb, where the thumb and wrist converge, known as the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint; the joint closest to the fingertip, referring to the distal interphalangeal joint (DIP); the middle joint of a finger, referring to the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP). [5] Osteoarthritis of the hand causes stiffness of the base of the thumb, alongside enlargement of DIP and PIP joints, leading to the formation of Heberden's nodes and Bouchard's nodes respectively. [6] Such firm and bony swellings at the finger joints are caused by the growth of osteophytes. [7]

Mallet Finger

Mallet finger is acquired due to injury to the thin extensor tendon that functions to straighten the end (DIP) joint of a finger. [8] Jamming of the finger induces a rupture of the extensor tendon or a broken bone at the tendon's site of attachment. [9] This results in a droopy and crooked appearance of the end joint of the finger, resembling a mallet. [9]

Swan-neck deformity presentation on an affected patient Swan neck deformity in a 65 year old Rheumatoid Arthritis patient- 2014-05-27 01-49.jpg
Swan-neck deformity presentation on an affected patient

Swan-Neck Deformity

Swan-neck deformity is depicted by difficulty in finger bending, finger deformity, and stiffness. [10] Rheumatoid arthritis is a primary cause of swan-neck deformity due to the presence of inflammation of the joints. [11] Additionally, swan-neck deformity can be caused by weakening or tearing of the ligament and tendon on the middle joint of a finger. [10] Other causes of swan-neck deformity include untreated mallet finger, muscle spasticity, physical hand trauma, and many others. [11]

Ulnar Claw Hand

Ulnar claw hand occurs as a result of ulnar nerve damage, which instigates symptoms of numbness, pain, hand weakness, and difficulty to straighten fingers. [3]

Presentation

Within the scope of acquired hand deformities, impacts of the deformity may vary based on the nature of its cause:

Acute-Event Flexion/ Extension Consequences

Such acute events would result in inability/ reduced ability to flex and extend one's fingers. Examples of trauma deformities may include but are not limited to: ulnar claw deformity due to ulnar nerve damage from elbow injuries, [12] boutonnière deformity, [1] mallet finger, [13] jersey finger [14] and gamekeeper's thumb, [4] which can result from sport injuries. [4] [15] [16]

With trauma-related flexion and extension deformities, periodical treatments may eventually heal the deformity. [17] Importantly, the extent of the deformity impacts how effective treatments will be. [18]

Macroscopic presentation of what ulnar claw deformity may look like Ulnar claw hand.JPG
Macroscopic presentation of what ulnar claw deformity may look like

Ulnar Claw Deformity

Due to flexion at the interphalangeal joints, and hyperextension at the metacarpophalangeal joints, [19] individuals' hand utility, such as grip, may be limited. [18] Note that damage to the ulnar nerve can also be triggered by a disease's onset. [12]

Sport and Other Trauma Deformities

Trauma deformities may manifest as reduced joint function due to lack of coordination in phalangeal joints, such as proximal interphalangeal flexion and distal interphalangeal hyperextension in boutonnière deformity. [1] Besides trauma, another reason boutonnière deformity may develop is due to a chronic disease like rheumatoid arthritis. [1] Gamekeeper's thumb can also be provoked by either sport related trauma, or excessive use. [4] With some trauma deformities, macroscopically, certain digits may be unable to straighten. [1] With gamekeeper's thumb, where the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) is damaged, thumb functional abilities may be diminished. [4] For fingertip deformities, such as in mallet finger, pain and fingernail disruption may also be observed. [13]

Rheumatoid arthritis of the hands may cause hand deformities. Rheumatoid Arthritis Hands.jpg
Rheumatoid arthritis of the hands may cause hand deformities.

Chronic-Event Flexion/ Extension Consequences

Deformities possibly instigated by chronic events can involve but are not limited to Dupuytren's contracture [3] and swan-neck deformity. [20]

Many of these deformities, such as Dupuytren's contracture, swan-neck deformity etc. can be associated with both a chronic, progressive event, or an acute injury; [17] such as boutonnière deformity, which can be caused by trauma, [1] or induced by a chronic condition like rheumatoid arthritis. [20] The causes of some deformities, such as Dupuytren's contracture, are difficult to determine exactly, however chances of developing the deformity may be increased by certain chronic behaviours or disease. [3]

Consequences can be similar to trauma related ones, in that joint use may be disrupted. [20] However, what differentiates these is their cause; a chronic onset rather than being due to an acute event. [20] Certain treatments can reduce their severity. [20]

Joint Growth Consequences

Abnormal growth in joints of the hand often results from chronic disease, such as different forms of arthritis. [20] [21] [22] Rheumatoid nodulosis, which may occur in joint areas, can vary in its effect on hand function. [23] Milder cases often do not disturb daily function, whereas severe ones may induce loss-of-function. [23] Besides this, gouty arthritis can be associated with tophi deposits in the joints of the hand. [22] Gout can induce pain and swelling. [24]

Bony enlargements resulting from osteoarthritis may cause pain, as well as several types of joint issues. [5]

Burn Trauma Consequences

Burn trauma consequences can include claw deformities as well. [25] However, another kind of deformity that can occur between burn-affected digits is syndactyly. [25]

Hand Amputation Consequences

Partial hand amputations can result in loss of digits, which may disrupt regular hand abilities, based on the success of treatment. [26]

Causes

Trauma

One of the primary causes of acquired hand deformity is trauma. Trauma can be described by an abrupt or sudden tissue injury caused by violent forces that can be classified into varying groups: blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, and deceleration trauma. Blunt force is indicated by forceful impact causing injury to the body; penetrating trauma is classified by penetration of the skin, inducing an open wound; deceleration trauma refers to a traumatic injury to the brain. [27]

Sport injuries, falls, motor vehicle collisions, physical assaults, and burns are common types of blunt trauma that can lead to acquired hand deformities. [28]

Inflammatory conditions

A diagram visualising the effect of rheumatoid arthritis on the joint Rheumatoid arthritis joint.gif
A diagram visualising the effect of rheumatoid arthritis on the joint

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune disorder characterised by the immune system's attack on healthy body cells, causing inflammation in multiple areas of the body. [29] In individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system specifically targets the synovium, a membrane lining the joints in our body. [30] The synovium plays a crucial role in producing a fluid that lubricates the joints, enabling smooth movement. [30] The attack on synovium results in chronic inflammation, causing the thickening and swelling of the synovium, thereby leading to the formation of an abnormal tissue layer known as pannus. [31] Over time, this process contributes to joint pain, cartilage damage, bone erosion, swelling, and stiffness. [32]

Gouty arthritis, commonly referred to as gout, is another form of inflammatory arthritis that can lead to hand deformities due to deposition of monosodium urate crystals in the joints and other tissues, forming nodular masses known as tophi. [33]

Systemic lupus erythematosus, alternatively referred to as lupus, is another autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks its own tissues, causing inflammation, tissue and joint damage. [34]

Degenerative arthritis

Osteoarthritis, a degenerative form of arthritis, causes the gradual deterioration of the cartilage within a joint, hence exposing the underlying bone. [35] This condition exists as a progressive disorder with symptoms ranging from swelling, stiffness, and pain, to more severe symptoms of impaired hand function, disability, and difficulty to perform daily tasks. [35]

Neurological disorders

Cerebral palsy is a neurological condition that manifests a range of musculoskeletal symptoms, including hand contractures. [36] Such musculoskeletal symptoms arise as a result of spasticity, characterised by increased muscle tone and stiffness that progressively limit range-of-motion [37]

Diagnosis

Electromyography (EMG) may be conducted to observe nerve damage in relation to the deformity. EMG - SIMI.jpg
Electromyography (EMG) may be conducted to observe nerve damage in relation to the deformity.
X-rays done to further understand the deformity. Dupuytren-Kontraktur im Roentgenbild ap.jpg
X-rays done to further understand the deformity.

Nerve Testing

With conditions involving nerve damage, specific tests measuring nerve capacity can act as an indication of the deformity's status. [12] Such may include electromyography (EMG), to assess coordination between nerves and associated hand muscles, as well as nerve biopsies or conduction tests [12]

Physical Examinations

Examinations conducted by doctors can be used to assess the deformity in patients. [4] Doctors may operate certain digits to assess joint strength, [4] or conduct specific physical tests. [1] For example, the Elson test can be used to observe the presence of boutonnière deformity [38]

Lab Tests

For conditions involving build-up of a substance, like gout, lab tests (such as for blood) may be taken as well. [24]

Imaging Examinations

Imaging can help further determine features of the deformity. [24] Features observed depend on the deformity of concern. For example, specific damage can possibly be visualised for certain acute trauma deformities [14]

Treatments

Treatments can be categorised into non-surgical and surgical options, though the latter may only needed in extreme cases. [4]

Non-Surgical

Example chemical structure of a corticosteroid Corticosterone.svg
Example chemical structure of a corticosteroid

Medicinal

Medicinal treatment can be used to either reduce symptoms or the deformity cause directly, if possible. Symptoms such as swelling in the hand can be mitigated via consumption of corticosteroids. [12]

In the case of rheumatoid arthritis, a specific class of drugs known as disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs) can be utilised for helping reduce joint damage. [32]

Occupational/ Physical Therapy

Physical therapy can be used to help maintain or improve function of deformed joints, particularly those affected by acute trauma. [13] In the case of chronic diseases, exercise therapy can help retain utility, such as in rheumatoid arthritis [20]

Splints may be added temporarily to control regional flexion and extension. Custom-made Oval-8 thermoplastic splint for mallet finger.jpg
Splints may be added temporarily to control regional flexion and extension.

Splinting

Splints can be applied to the digit to control contraction and extension of specific joints. [1] Splints are usually applied for a short period of time [1]

Surgical

Surgical procedures can be used in the case of a more extreme condition. [4] Ligament anchoring procedures can restore ligament-bone connections via pins, which can be relied on for treatment of a damaged ulnar collateral ligament in gamekeeper's thumb. [4] On a case-to-case basis, interphalangeal joint deformities may also be surgically treated by pins, in order to correct their position in the digit. [1]

In terms of non-joint related deformities, amputations may be treated by flap reconstruction procedures. [26]

The ultimate treatment required can depend on the nature of the deformity and symptoms being presented. [38]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Arthritis</span> Type of joint disorder

Arthritis is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints. Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness. Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints. In some types of arthritis, other organs are also affected. Onset can be gradual or sudden.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Rheumatoid arthritis</span> Type of autoimmune arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects joints. It typically results in warm, swollen, and painful joints. Pain and stiffness often worsen following rest. Most commonly, the wrist and hands are involved, with the same joints typically involved on both sides of the body. The disease may also affect other parts of the body, including skin, eyes, lungs, heart, nerves, and blood. This may result in a low red blood cell count, inflammation around the lungs, and inflammation around the heart. Fever and low energy may also be present. Often, symptoms come on gradually over weeks to months.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulnar nerve</span> Nerve which runs near the ulna bone

The ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna, one of the two long bones in the forearm. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common. This nerve is directly connected to the little finger, and the adjacent half of the ring finger, innervating the palmar aspect of these fingers, including both front and back of the tips, perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wrist drop</span> Medical condition

Wrist drop is a medical condition in which the wrist and the fingers cannot extend at the metacarpophalangeal joints. The wrist remains partially flexed due to an opposing action of flexor muscles of the forearm. As a result, the extensor muscles in the posterior compartment remain paralyzed.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Psoriatic arthritis</span> Long-term inflammatory arthritis

Psoriatic arthritis (PsA) is a long-term inflammatory arthritis that occurs in people affected by the autoimmune disease psoriasis. The classic feature of psoriatic arthritis is swelling of entire fingers and toes with a sausage-like appearance. This often happens in association with changes to the nails such as small depressions in the nail (pitting), thickening of the nails, and detachment of the nail from the nailbed. Skin changes consistent with psoriasis frequently occur before the onset of psoriatic arthritis but psoriatic arthritis can precede the rash in 15% of affected individuals. It is classified as a type of seronegative spondyloarthropathy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dupuytren's contracture</span> Gradual bending of the fingers due to scar tissue buildup within the palms

Dupuytren's contracture is a condition in which one or more fingers become permanently bent in a flexed position. It is named after Guillaume Dupuytren, who first described the underlying mechanism of action, followed by the first successful operation in 1831 and publication of the results in The Lancet in 1834. It usually begins as small, hard nodules just under the skin of the palm, then worsens over time until the fingers can no longer be fully straightened. While typically not painful, some aching or itching, or pain, may be present. The ring finger followed by the little and middle fingers are most commonly affected. It can affect one or both hands. The condition can interfere with activities such as preparing food, writing, putting the hand in a tight pocket, putting on gloves, or shaking hands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hammer toe</span> Rigidly clenched toe due to deformity of related muscles or ligaments

A hammer toe, hammertoe or contracted toe is a deformity of the muscles and ligaments of the proximal interphalangeal joint of the second, third, fourth, or fifth toe, bending it into a shape resembling a hammer. In the early stage, a flexible hammertoe is movable at the joints; a rigid hammertoe joint cannot be moved and usually requires surgery.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monoarthritis</span> Medical condition

Monoarthritis, or monoarticular arthritis, is inflammation (arthritis) of one joint at a time. It is usually caused by trauma, infection, or crystalline arthritis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulnar deviation</span>

Ulnar deviation, also known as ulnar drift, is a hand deformity in which the swelling of the metacarpophalangeal joints causes the fingers to become displaced, tending towards the little finger. Its name comes from the displacement toward the ulna. Ulnar deviation is likely to be a characteristic of rheumatoid arthritis, more than of osteoarthritis. Consideration should also be given to pigmented villonodular synovitis, in the setting of ulnar deviation and metacarpophalangeal synovitis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Boutonniere deformity</span> Medical condition

Boutonniere deformity is a deformed position of the fingers or toes, in which the joint nearest the knuckle is permanently bent toward the palm while the farthest joint is bent back away. Causes include injury, inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, and genetic conditions like Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulnar collateral ligament injury of the thumb</span> Medical condition

Gamekeeper's thumb is a type of injury to the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the thumb. The UCL may be merely stretched, or it may be torn from its insertion site into the proximal phalanx of the thumb. This condition is commonly observed among gamekeepers and Scottish fowl hunters, as well as athletes. It also occurs among people who sustain a fall onto an outstretched hand while holding a rod, frequently skiers grasping ski poles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulnar neuropathy at the elbow</span> Medical condition

Idiopathic ulnar neuropathy at the elbow is a condition where pressure on the ulnar nerve as it passes through the cubital tunnel causes ulnar neuropathy. The symptoms of neuropathy are paresthesia (tingling) and numbness primarily affecting the little finger and ring finger of the hand. Ulnar neuropathy can progress to weakness and atrophy of the muscles in the hand. Symptoms can be alleviated by the use of a splint to prevent the elbow from flexing while sleeping.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulnar claw</span> Deformity of the hand that develops due to ulnar nerve damage

An ulnar claw, also known as claw hand or ‘Spinster’s Claw’, is a deformity or an abnormal attitude of the hand that develops due to ulnar nerve damage causing paralysis of the lumbricals. A claw hand presents with a hyperextension at the metacarpophalangeal joints and flexion at the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints of the 4th and 5th fingers. The patients with this condition can make a full fist but when they extend their fingers, the hand posture is referred to as claw hand. The ring- and little finger can usually not fully extend at the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hand</span> Extremity at the end of an arm or forelimb

A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala are often described as having "hands" instead of paws on their front limbs. The raccoon is usually described as having "hands" though opposable thumbs are lacking.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wrist pain</span>

Wrist pain or open wrist is a syndrome inhibiting use of a hand due to pain in anatomical structures of the wrist. It most commonly results from an injury to a ligament. The pain may be sharp from a traumatic injury or from chronic repetitive wrist activities.

The hand is a very complex organ with multiple joints, different types of ligament, tendons and nerves. Hand disease injuries are common in society and can result from excessive use, degenerative disorders or trauma.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Median nerve palsy</span> Medical condition

Injuries to the arm, forearm or wrist area can lead to various nerve disorders. One such disorder is median nerve palsy. The median nerve controls the majority of the muscles in the forearm. It controls abduction of the thumb, flexion of hand at wrist, flexion of digital phalanx of the fingers, is the sensory nerve for the first three fingers, etc. Because of this major role of the median nerve, it is also called the eye of the hand. If the median nerve is damaged, the ability to abduct and oppose the thumb may be lost due to paralysis of the thenar muscles. Various other symptoms can occur which may be repaired through surgery and tendon transfers. Tendon transfers have been very successful in restoring motor function and improving functional outcomes in patients with median nerve palsy.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ankle problems</span> Medical condition

Ankle problems occur frequently, having symptoms of pain or discomfort in the ankles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Broken finger</span> Medical condition

A broken finger or finger fracture is a common type of bone fracture, affecting a finger. Symptoms may include pain, swelling, tenderness, bruising, deformity and reduced ability to move the finger. Although most finger fractures are easy to treat, failing to deal with a fracture appropriately may result in long-term pain and disability.

Elbow pain generally refers to discomfort in the joint (elbow) between the upper arm and forearm. Elbow pain is a common complaint in both the emergency department and in primary care offices. The CDC estimated that 1.15 million people visited an emergency room for elbow or forearm-related injuries in 2020. There are many possible causes of elbow discomfort but the most common are trauma, infection, and inflammation. Pain may be acute, chronic or associated with a number of other symptoms. Treatments range from conservative measures, such as ice and rest, to surgical interventions, depending on the underlying cause and severity.

References

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