Aging and society

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Aging has a significant impact on society. People of different ages and genders tend to differ in many aspects, such as legal and social responsibilities, outlooks on life, and self-perceptions. Young people tend to have fewer legal privileges (if they are below the age of majority), they are more likely to push for political and social change, to develop and adopt new technologies, and to need education. Older people have different requirements from society and government, and frequently have differing values as well, such as for property and pension rights. [1] Older people are also more likely to vote, and in many countries the young are forbidden from voting. Thus, the aged have comparatively more, or at least different, political influence. [2]

Contents

In different societies, age may be viewed or treated differently. For example, age may be measured starting from conception or birth, starting at either zero or age one. Transitions such as reaching puberty, age of majority, or retirement are often socially significant. The concepts of successful aging and healthy aging refer to both social and physical aspects of the aging process. [3] [4]

Cultural variations

An elderly woman Elderly Woman , B&W image by Chalmers Butterfield.jpg
An elderly woman

Arbitrary divisions set to mark periods of life may include: juvenile (via infancy, childhood, preadolescence, adolescence), early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. More casual terms may include "teenagers", "tweens", "twentysomething", "thirtysomething", etc. as well as "vicenarian", "tricenarian", "quadragenarian", etc.

The age of an adult human is commonly measured in whole years since the day of birth. Fractional years, months, or even weeks may be used to describe the ages of children and infants for finer resolution. The time of day the birth occurred is not commonly considered. In some cultures, there are other ways to express age. For example, some cultures measure age by counting years, including the current year, while others count years without including it. It could be said for the same person that he is twenty years old or that he is in the twenty-first year of his life. In Russian, the former expression is generally used. Still, the latter has restricted usage: it is used for the age of a deceased person in obituaries and for the age of an adult when it is desired to show him/her older than he/she is. (Psychologically, a woman in her 20th year seems older than one who is 19 years old.) Other cultures that express age differently may not use years elapsed since birth at all. Inuit culture is an example in which birthdays are not celebrated because maturity is not signified in terms of years. The Navajo culture is another in which age is not counted through years elapsed from birth. In this case, age is measured through certain milestones in a person's life, such as the first time they laugh. [5]

In cultures where age is not measured by years since birth, most individuals do not know how old they are in years. People in these cultures may find more importance in other aspects of their birth, such as the season, agricultural practices, [6] or spiritual connections [7] taking place when they were born. A culture may also choose to place a greater emphasis on family lineage than age, as is done in Mayan society. A Mayan adult would not determine a child's responsibility and status in terms of age by years, but instead by relative seniority to others in the family or community.

The main purpose of counting age in terms of years from birth is to conveniently group individuals by age, as is needed in industrialized society. The medical practices and compulsory schooling that resulted from industrialization factored largely into the need to count age in terms of years since birth. [8] Even in Westernized societies such as the United States, age in terms of years since birth did not begin until the mid-1800s. [5]

Depending on cultural and personal philosophy, ageing can be seen as an undesirable phenomenon, reducing beauty and bringing one closer to death, or as an accumulation of wisdom, a mark of survival, and a status worthy of respect. In some cases, numerical age is important (whether good or bad), whereas others find the stage in life that one has reached (adulthood, independence, marriage, retirement, career success) to be more important.

East Asian age reckoning is different from that found in Western culture. Traditional Chinese culture uses a different ageing method, called Xusui (虛歲) with respect to common ageing which is called Zhousui (周歲). According to Luo Zhufeng (1991), the Xusui method, people are born at age 1, not age 0, possibly because conception is already considered to be the start of the life span and possibly because the number '0' was not historically present in Ancient China, and another difference is the ageing day: Xusui grows up at the Spring Festival (aka. Chinese New Year's Day), while Zhousui grows up at one's birthday. [9] In parts of Tibet, age is counted from conception i.e. one is usually 9 months old when one is born. [10]

Age in prenatal development is normally measured in gestational age, taking the last menstruation of the mother as a point of beginning. Alternatively, fertilisation age, beginning from fertilisation can be taken.

Most legal systems define a specific age for when an individual is allowed or obliged to do particular activities. These age specifications include voting age, drinking age, age of consent, age of majority, age of criminal responsibility, marriageable age, age of candidacy, and mandatory retirement age. Admission to a movie, for instance, may depend on age according to a motion picture rating system. A bus fare might be discounted for the young or old. Each nation, government and non-government organisation has different ways of classifying age.

Similarly, in many countries in jurisprudence, the defense of infancy is a form of defence by which a defendant argues that, at the time a law was broken, they were not liable for their actions and thus should not be held liable for a crime. Many courts recognise that defendants who are considered to be juveniles may avoid criminal prosecution on account of their age and in borderline cases the age of the offender is often held to be a mitigating circumstance.

Political

Older people have different requirements from society and government, and frequently have differing values as well, such as for property and pension rights. [1] Older people are also more likely to vote, and in many countries the young are forbidden from voting. Thus, the aged have comparatively more, or at least different, political influence. [2]

Education tends to lose political significance for people as they age. [11]

Coping and well-being

Elderly Gambian woman Elderly Gambian woman face portrait.jpg
Elderly Gambian woman

Psychologists have examined coping skills in the elderly. Various factors, such as social support, religion and spirituality, active engagement with life, and having an internal locus of control, have been proposed as being beneficial in helping people to cope with stressful life events in later life. [12] [13] [14] Social support and personal control are possibly the two most important factors that predict well-being, morbidity and mortality in adults. [15] Other factors that may link to well-being and quality of life in the elderly include social relationships (possibly relationships with pets as well as humans), and health. [16]

Retirement, a common transition faced by the elderly, may have both positive and negative consequences. [17] Individuals in different wings in the same retirement home have demonstrated a lower risk of mortality and higher alertness and self-rated health in the wing where residents had greater control over their environment, [18] [19] though personal control may have less impact on specific measures of health. [14] Social control, perceptions of how much influence one has over one's social relationships, shows support as a moderator variable for the relationship between social support and perceived health in the elderly and may positively influence coping in the elderly. [20]

Religion

Religion is an important factor used by the elderly in coping with the demands of later life and appears more often than other forms of coping later in life. [21] Religiosity is a multidimensional variable; while participation in religious activities in the sense of participation in formal and organised rituals may decline, it may become a more informal, but still important aspect of life such as through personal or private prayer. [22]

Self-rated health

Positive self-perception of health has been correlated with higher well-being and reduced mortality in the elderly. [23] [24] Various reasons have been proposed for this association; people who are objectively healthy may naturally rate their health better than that of their ill counterparts, though this link has been observed even in studies which have controlled for socioeconomic status, psychological functioning and health status. [25] This finding is generally stronger for men than women, [24] though the pattern between genders is not universal across all studies and some results suggest sex-based differences only appear in certain age groups, for certain causes of mortality and within a specific sub-set of self-ratings of health. [25]

Paradox of ageing

Seniors' subjective health remains relatively stable, while objective health worsens with age. [26] Furthermore, it seems that the perceived health improves with age when objective health is controlled in the equation. [27] This phenomenon is known as the paradox of ageing. People's expectations concerning health co-evolve with the health norms surrounding one's age. Elderly people often associate their functional and physical decline with the normal ageing process. [28] [29] The elderly may actually enhance their perception of their own health through social comparison; [30] for instance, the older people get, the more they may consider themselves in better health than their same-aged peers. [31] Hence, the older a person becomes and the more their actual health declines, the greater the potential role is for social comparison processes to create a gap between a person's objective and subjective health.

Healthcare

Many societies in Western Europe and Japan have ageing populations. While the effects on society are complex, there is a concern about the impact on healthcare demand. The large number of suggestions in the literature for specific interventions to cope with the expected increase in demand for long-term care in ageing societies can be organised under four headings: improve system performance; redesign service delivery; support informal caregivers; and shift demographic parameters. [32]

However, the annual growth in national health spending is not mainly due to increasing demand from ageing populations, but rather has been driven by rising incomes, costly new medical technology, a shortage of health care workers and informational asymmetries between providers and patients. [33] Several health problems become more prevalent as people get older. These include mental health problems as well as physical health problems, especially dementia.

Even so, it has been estimated that population ageing only explains 0.2 percentage points of the annual growth rate in medical spending of 4.3 percent since 1970. In addition, certain reforms to the Medicare system in the United States decreased elderly spending on home health care by 12.5 percent per year between 1996 and 2000. [34] This would suggest that the impact of ageing populations on health care costs is not inevitable.

In United States prisons, medical costs for an ageing inmate could be above $100 per day as of July 2007, while typical inmates cost $33 per day. Most States DOCs report spending more than 10 percent of the annual budget on elderly care. That is expected to rise over the next 10–20 years. Some states have talked about releasing ageing inmates early. [35]

Housing

As Taiwan heads into an ageing society, a study in the city of Kaoshiung suggests that compared to their parents, the current generation of adults has shown a greater interest in age-friendly housing of high-quality building materials and community environment. [36] The poor living conditions for the elderly was exposed after a fire in the city tore through multiple stories of a dilapidated apartment block. [37]

Successful ageing

Two men practising Tahtib. One of them is balding, suggesting vigorous activity at an advanced age. Egypte louvre 105.jpg
Two men practising Tahtib. One of them is balding, suggesting vigorous activity at an advanced age.

The concept of successful ageing can be traced back to the 1950s and was popularised in the 1980s. Previous research into ageing exaggerated the extent to which health disabilities, such as diabetes or osteoporosis, could be attributed exclusively to age and research in gerontology exaggerated the homogeneity of samples of elderly people. [4] [38] Other research shows that even late in life, the potential exists for physical, mental, and social growth and development. [39]

Successful ageing consists of three components: [3]

  1. The avoidance of illness and disease
  2. High cognitive and physical function
  3. Social and productive engagement

A greater number of people self-report successful ageing than those that strictly meet these criteria. [4]

Successful ageing may be viewed an interdisciplinary concept, spanning both psychology and sociology, where it is seen as the transaction between society and individuals across the life span with a specific focus on the later years of life. [40] The terms "healthy ageing" [4] and "optimal ageing" have been proposed as alternatives to successful ageing, partly because the term "successful ageing" has been criticised for making healthy ageing sound too competitive.

Six suggested dimensions of successful ageing include: [14]

  1. No physical disability over the age of 75 as rated by a physician;
  2. Good subjective health assessment (i.e. good self-ratings of one's health);
  3. Length of undisabled life;
  4. Good mental health;
  5. Objective social support;
  6. Self-rated life satisfaction in eight domains: marriage, income-related work, children, friendship and social contacts, hobbies, community service activities, religion and recreation/sports.

Numerous worldwide health, ageing, and retirement surveys contain questions about pensions. The Meta Data Repository – created by the non-profit RAND Corporation and sponsored by the National Institute on Aging at the National Institutes of Health – provides access to metadata for these questions as well as links to obtain respondent data from the originating surveys.[ citation needed ]

Recent studies utilizing artificial intelligence showed that in order to stay biologically younger and lower the chances of most age-related diseases, people should not be unhappy and lonely. [41]

Ageing and communication

Display of healthy communication between the elderly Hangbejaarden.jpg
Display of healthy communication between the elderly

Healthy ageing implies optimal well-being in spite of barriers resulting from age. [42] The global population is ageing and will continue to have communication inabilities unless barriers of communication with the elderly are more highly promoted. [43] Sensory impairments include hearing and vision deficits, which can cause communication barriers. Changes in cognition, hearing, and vision are easily associated with healthy ageing and can cause problems when diagnosing dementia and aphasia due to the similarities. [43]

Hearing loss

Hearing aid Hearing aid 20080620.jpg
Hearing aid

Hearing loss is a common condition among ageing adults. Common conditions that can increase the risk of hearing loss in elderly people are high blood pressure, diabetes, or the use of certain medications that are harmful to the ear. [44] Hearing aids are commonly referred to as personal amplifying systems, which can generally improve hearing by about 50%. [45]

Hearing loss among the aged community lessens elders' ability to compensate for other age-related social and/or physical problems. [46] Communication problems of elderly adults can be greatly impacted by mechanical problems such as the translation of ideas into linguistic representation or expression, the perception of linguistic stimuli, or the derivation of an idea from a given unit of disclosure. Changes in these mechanical problems are more important than changes in linguistic knowledge. [46] The main goal of hearing aids is to improve communication and quality of life, not just to restore hearing. Presbycusis is an example of a hearing deficit that cannot be corrected by hearing aids. [45] Presbycusis, the alteration of hearing sensitivity associated with normal hearing loss, is caused by the decreased amount of hair cells of the inner ear. [47] This is normally caused by long periods of distressing noise that diminish the hair cells which with increasing age will not grow back. Presbycusis and other hearing-related problems promote social withdrawal, as individuals lose touch with the world around them. Hearing loss among the aged community lessens elders' ability to compensate for other age-related social and/or physical problems. [47] This impairment can cause elders to lose touch of social skills because they may have trouble keeping up with fast-paced or hearing different pitched voices in conversation. [45]

Visual impairment

The interpretation of facial expressions and mouthing can be difficult to understand when an individual has a visual impairment. Such problems hinder the ability of people to understand stimuli and translate information pertaining to perception with their brain for analysis. [45] Non-verbal communication is important in effective communication, and elders with vision loss are more likely to misinterpret or read the other person's actions in a wrong way. Visual impairments also cause a loss in positive perceptions of the environment around them. This can lead to isolation and possible depression in elderly people. [45] Macular degeneration is a common cause of vision loss in elderly people. It diminishes the macula of the eye, which is responsible for clear vision. It causes progressive loss of central vision and possible loss of colour vision. [45] This degeneration is caused by systemic changes in the circulation of waste products and the growth of abnormal vessels around the retina causing the photoreceptors not to receive proper images. Though ageing almost always causes this, other possible effects and risk factors include smoking, obesity, family history, and excessive sunlight exposure. [45]

Digital world

In a world increasingly relying on digital technologies, older adults face higher risks of social exclusion and prejudices (see digital ageism). Generational segregation naturalizes youth as digitally adept and the old as digitally inept. Older adults' experiences are often excluded from research agendas on digital media. [48] [49]

Political struggle against ageing

Though many scientists state that radical life extension, delaying and stopping ageing are achievable, [50] [51] there are still no international or national programmes focused on stopping ageing or on radical life extension. There are political forces staying for and against life extension. In 2012 the Longevity political parties started in Russia, then in the US, Israel and the Netherlands. These parties aim to provide political support to anti-ageing and radical life extension research and technologies and want to ensure the fastest possible and at the same time the softest societal transition to the next step: radical life extension and life without ageing, that will make it possible to provide the access to such technologies to most of the currently living people. [52] Societal effects of negligible senescence describes the possible societal outcomes if ageing is successfully treated.

Social science of ageing

An elderly Iraqi man Sabaa Nissan Militiaman.jpg
An elderly Iraqi man
Seniors at a San Francisco Day Care Center in Chinatown, late 1970s San Francisco's On Lok Senior Health Services in the 1970's.jpg
Seniors at a San Francisco Day Care Center in Chinatown, late 1970s

Other definitions

As cyborgs currently are on the rise some theorists argue there is a need to develop new definitions of aging and for instance a bio-techno-social definition of aging has been suggested. [56]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Old age</span> End of life stage

Old age is the range of ages for people nearing and surpassing life expectancy. People of old age are also referred to as: old people, elderly, elders, senior citizens, seniors or older adults. Old age is not a definite biological stage: the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically. Some disciplines and domains focus on the aging and the aged, such as the organic processes of aging (senescence), medical studies of the aging process (gerontology), diseases that afflict older adults (geriatrics), technology to support the aging society (gerontechnology), and leisure and sport activities adapted to older people.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gerontology</span> Study of the social, psychological and biological aspects of aging

Gerontology is the study of the social, cultural, psychological, cognitive, and biological aspects of aging. The word was coined by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov in 1903, from the Greek γέρων (gérōn), meaning "old man", and -λογία (-logía), meaning "study of". The field is distinguished from geriatrics, which is the branch of medicine that specializes in the treatment of existing disease in older adults. Gerontologists include researchers and practitioners in the fields of biology, nursing, medicine, criminology, dentistry, social work, physical and occupational therapy, psychology, psychiatry, sociology, economics, political science, architecture, geography, pharmacy, public health, housing, and anthropology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geriatrics</span> Specialty that focuses on health care of elderly people

Geriatrics, or geriatric medicine, is a medical specialty focused on providing care for the unique health needs of the elderly. The term geriatrics originates from the Greek γέρων geron meaning "old man", and ιατρός iatros meaning "healer". It aims to promote health by preventing, diagnosing and treating disease in older adults. There is no defined age at which patients may be under the care of a geriatrician, or geriatric physician, a physician who specializes in the care of older people. Rather, this decision is guided by individual patient need and the caregiving structures available to them. This care may benefit those who are managing multiple chronic conditions or experiencing significant age-related complications that threaten quality of daily life. Geriatric care may be indicated if caregiving responsibilities become increasingly stressful or medically complex for family and caregivers to manage independently.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Population ageing</span> Increasing median age in a population

Population ageing is an increasing median age in a population because of declining fertility rates and rising life expectancy. Most countries have rising life expectancy and an ageing population, trends that emerged first in developed countries but are now seen in virtually all developing countries. In most developed countries, the phenomenon of population aging began to gradually emerge in the late 19th century. The aging of the world population occurred in the late 20th century, with the proportion of people aged 65 and above accounting for 6% of the total population. This reflects the overall decline in the world's fertility rate at that time. That is the case for every country in the world except the 18 countries designated as "demographic outliers" by the United Nations. The aged population is currently at its highest level in human history. The UN predicts the rate of population ageing in the 21st century will exceed that of the previous century. The number of people aged 60 years and over has tripled since 1950 and reached 600 million in 2000 and surpassed 700 million in 2006. It is projected that the combined senior and geriatric population will reach 2.1 billion by 2050. Countries vary significantly in terms of the degree and pace of ageing, and the UN expects populations that began ageing later will have less time to adapt to its implications.

Reminiscence is the act of recollecting past experiences or events. An example of the typical use of reminiscence is when people share their personal stories with others or allows other people to live vicariously through stories of family, friends, and acquaintances while gaining an authentic meaningful relationship with the people. An example of reminiscence may be grandparents remembering past events with friends or their grandchildren, sharing their individual experience of what the past was like.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Robert N. Butler</span> American academic (1927–2010)

Robert Neil Butler was an American physician, gerontologist, psychiatrist, and author, who was the first director of the National Institute on Aging. Butler is known for his work on the social needs and the rights of the elderly and for his research on healthy aging and the dementias.

Program of All-inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE) are programs within the United States that provide comprehensive health services for individuals age 55 and over who are sufficiently frail to be categorized as "nursing home eligible" by their state's Medicaid program. The ultimate goal of PACE programs is to keep eligible older adults out of nursing homes and within their communities for as long as possible. Services include primary and specialty medical care, nursing, nutrition, social services, therapies, pharmaceuticals, day health center services, home care, health-related transportation, minor modification to the home to accommodate disabilities, and anything else the program determines is medically necessary to maximize a member's health. If you or a loved one are eligible for nursing home level care but prefer to continue living at home, a PACE program can provide expansive health care and social opportunities during the day while you retain the comfort and familiarity of your home outside of day hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Disengagement theory</span> Theory of aging

The disengagement theory of ageing states that "aging is an inevitable, mutual withdrawal or disengagement, resulting in decreased interaction between the aging person and others in the social system he belongs to". The theory claims that it is natural and acceptable for older adults to withdraw from society. There are multiple variations on disengagement theory, such as moral disengagement.

Eileen M. Crimmins is the AARP Chair in Gerontology at the USC Davis School of Gerontology of the University of Southern California. Her work focuses on the connections between socioeconomic factors and life expectancy and other health outcomes.

Adult development encompasses the changes that occur in biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of one's life. Changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by biological theories of adult development and aging. Biological changes influence psychological and interpersonal/social developmental changes, which are often described by stage theories of human development. Stage theories typically focus on "age-appropriate" developmental tasks to be achieved at each stage. Erik Erikson and Carl Jung proposed stage theories of human development that encompass the entire life span, and emphasized the potential for positive change very late in life.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Reminiscence therapy</span> Intervention technique with brain-injured patients

Reminiscence therapy is used to counsel and support older people, and is an intervention technique with brain-injured patients and those who appear to have "Alzheimer's and other forms of cognitive disease."

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Continuity theory</span> Psychosocial theory of aging

The continuity theory of normal aging states that older adults will usually maintain the same activities, behaviors, relationships as they did in their earlier years of life. According to this theory, older adults try to maintain this continuity of lifestyle by adapting strategies that are connected to their past experiences.

Ageing is the process of becoming older. The term refers mainly to humans, many other animals, and fungi, whereas for example, bacteria, perennial plants and some simple animals are potentially biologically immortal. In a broader sense, ageing can refer to single cells within an organism which have ceased dividing, or to the population of a species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Activity theory (aging)</span> Theory of aging

The activity theory of aging, also known as the implicit theory of aging, normal theory of aging, and lay theory of aging, proposes that aging occurs with more positive outcomes when adults stay active and maintain social interactions as they get older. Activity theory suggests that the aging process is slowed or delayed, and quality of life is enhanced when the elderly remain socially active. Book clubs, club sports, barbeques, volunteer work, fitness classes, brunch dates, holiday celebrations and protests are just a few examples of how people maintain a healthy social life, which the activity theory of aging reports contributes to overall health in later life.

Becca R. Levy is a professor of Epidemiology at Yale School of Public Health and Professor of Psychology at Yale University. She is a leading researcher in the fields of social gerontology and psychology of aging. She is credited with creating the field of how age stereotypes, which are assimilated from the culture, impact the health of older individuals. The Dean of Columbia School of Public Health describes Levy as "a pioneer" in the "growing body of impressive research showing that our attitudes toward aging affect our health, our resilience in the face of adversity, and our very survival."

Cumulative inequality theory or cumulative disadvantage theory is the systematic explanation of how inequalities develop. The theory was initially developed by Merton in 1988, who studied the sciences and prestige. He believed that recognition from peers, and from published research in the scientific field created cumulative advantage or also Matthew effect that led to the receipt of resources that facilitated research projects. The theory expanded in four decades to include the idea that some people have more disadvantages than advantages which influence the quality of life of societies, cohorts, and individuals. The theory is principally a social scientific explanation of phenomena but with links to biological and health factors, personal adjustment, and well-being. A central premise is that "social systems generate inequality, which is manifested over the life course via demographic and developmental processes." Cumulative inequality and cumulative advantage/disadvantage (CAD) are two different but interrelated theories. Cumulative inequality has drawn from various theoretical traditions, including CAD.

Research into food preferences in older adults and seniors considers how people's dietary experiences change with ageing, and helps people understand how taste, nutrition, and food choices can change throughout one's lifetime, particularly when people approach the age of 70 or beyond. Influencing variables can include: social and cultural environment, gender and/or personal habits, and also physical and mental health. Scientific studies have been performed to explain why people like or dislike certain foods and what factors may affect these preferences.

Elder rights are the rights of older adults, who in various countries are not recognized as a constitutionally protected class, yet face discrimination across many aspects of society due to their age.

Karl Andrew Pillemer is an American sociologist and gerontologist who is the Hazel E. Reed Professor of Human Development at Cornell University, and Professor of Gerontology in Medicine at Weill Cornell Medicine. His research focuses on intergenerational relations in later life, long-term care for frail and disabled older persons, and social engagement and involvement of older persons. Pillemer is the founder of the Cornell Legacy Project, which since 2004 has collected accounts of the life wisdom of over 2,000 older Americans, and the Cornell Family Reconciliation Project, which researches family estrangement.

Jiska Cohen-Mansfield is the Igor Orenstein Chair for the Study of Geriatrics at Tel Aviv University Medical School and a professor at the Department of Health Promotion at the School of Public Health in the Sackler Medical Faculty at Tel Aviv University. She is the director of the Minerva Center for Interdisciplinary Study of End of Life at Tel-Aviv University.

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