Aira Caldera

Last updated
Aira
姶良カルデラ
Sakura-jima from space.jpg
Radar image from a Space Shuttle of Aira Caldera in 1999, with Sakurajima in the bay formed by the caldera
Highest point
Elevation 1,117 m (3,665 ft)
Prominence Sakurajima
Coordinates 31°39′00″N130°42′00″E / 31.65000°N 130.70000°E / 31.65000; 130.70000
Geography
Geology
Age of rock 29,428–30,148 years calibrated before present [1]
Mountain type Caldera
Somma volcano
Last eruption 1955 to present

Aira Caldera is a gigantic volcanic caldera that is located on the southern end of Kyushu, Japan. It is believed to have been formed about 30,000 years ago with a succession of pyroclastic surges. [1] [2] It is currently the place of residence to over 900,000 people. The shores of Aira Caldera are home to rare flora and fauna, including Japanese bay tree and Japanese black pine. [3] The caldera is home to Mount Sakurajima, and the Mount Kirishima group of stratovolcanoes lies to the north of the caldera. The most famous and active of this group is Shinmoedake.

Contents

Aira Caldera has an underlying magmatic chamber that connects with the Kirishima magmatic system. This has enabled magma from the caldera to feed into Sakurajima stratovolcano, causing it to expand over time. Thus, Sakurajima has caused a series of disasters such as the eruption in 1914 which killed 58 people [4] and sank the magma chamber by 60 cm. [5]

History

Location

Aira caldera is located at Kyushu, the southernmost island of Japan. The supervolcano peaks at 1117 m. [6]

The eruption forming the Aira Caldera, occurred approximately 30,000 years ago, and resulted in tephra and ignimbrite from a vast amount of magma affecting the nearby land. The eruption also aided in the formation of the 200 m (660 ft) deep Kinko Bay which formed after sea water entered the area. [3]

Aira caldera is surrounded by the major city of Kagoshima which has a population of more than 900,000. Residents do not mind small eruptions because they have measures in place for protection. For example, school students are required to wear hard helmets for protection against falling debris. [3] Additionally, a disaster prevention system with the world's best high-tech volcanic monitory system was put in place. The Caldera is now closely monitored by the Sakurajima Volcano Research Centre which is a part of the University of Kyoto and Disaster Prevention Research Institute. [6] This ensures the safety of the residents and provides a peaceful coexistence with the people of Kagoshima and the active caldera.

Geological background

Photo of present Japan with Aira Caldera's (red) Ito eruption area of immediate impact with approximate distribution 10cm or more of tephra (ash) in white shading and ignimbrite (yellow) from the symmetrical pyroclastic flow Ito eruption Aira Caldera Japan.jpg
Photo of present Japan with Aira Caldera's (red) Ito eruption area of immediate impact with approximate distribution 10cm or more of tephra (ash) in white shading and ignimbrite (yellow) from the symmetrical pyroclastic flow

Aira Caldera is almost rectangular in shape related to local faulting and was created in a series of large scale of pyroclastic surges that contributed to the Shirasu-Daichi pyroclastic plateau with the last now dated to 29,428 to 30,148 years calibrated before present [7] [1] [2] although earlier work had the date at ~22,000 years ago with wide possible range from 34,500 to 16,500 years before present. [8] [9] The eruption formed a caldera that was 17 km (11 mi) by 23 km (14 mi). The Aira Caldera is one of a series of volcanic complexs in the Kagoshima Graben [10] which has been postulated to extend northward from the undersea Kikai Caldera to the Ata South Caldera, Ata North Caldera (see Ata Caldera), the Aira Caldera associated with Kagoshima Bay and through past to the Kirishima Volcano Group. [11] This alignment was first noted in the 1940s. [12] The tectonic processes are rather complex in this region where the Okinawa Plate is colliding with the Amur Plate and the Pacific Plate is subducting under both.

The formation of Aira Caldera started with a Plinian pumice eruption of the Osumi pumice fall [2] from a vent near where Sakurajima is now [10] and was quickly followed by an oxidised Tsumaya pyroclastic flow. [9] It is likely subsequent eruptions in this series were at vents in what has been termed the Wakamiko caldera to the north west. [10] Basement rock fragments and pumiceous materials from a massive explosion formed the Ito pyroclastic flow which deposited more than 800 km3 (190 cu mi) of Ito Ignimbrite (known as “Shirasu” locally) and 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of Aira-Tn Tephra in volume. [13] Within the constraints that much of the caldera is under the sea, the reason for the large vent area is because the caldera erupted well over earlier estimates of 140 km3 (34 cu mi) of magma in a short amount of time. [9] The caldera is known for its gravitational anomalies which is associated with a funnel-like shape in the strata.

The structure of the caldera seemed unique in early work as it was different from the then typical Valles-type Caldera whose defining characteristics include a Valles-type ring fracture which acts as a channel for such large-scale pyroclastic flows. [9] Such diffuse non directional pyroclastic flows, overwhelming the local landscape, have now also been described in New Zealand, for example in the Hatepe eruption. [14]

Local Impact Ito eruption

Before the initial eruption of 25,000 years ago there was a wide and shallow basin of nearly the same size as the present Aira Caldera occupying the northern end of Kagoshima Bay with an east–west orientation. [9] The basin is separated from the rest of the bay by a ridge with heights 300 m (980 ft) to 500 m (1,600 ft) above sea level. The topography encompasses the outline of an older caldera so suggesting there were pyroclastic flows that pre-dated the formation of present-day Aira Caldera.

The first phase of activity resulted from injection of mafic magmas that destabilized the stored rhyolite magma [11] and was the mainly homogeneous Osumi Pumice Fall (named because the pumice fall extended across the Ōsumi Peninsula to the south east). [9] Above the Osumi pumice fall deposit, is the second phase Tsumaya pyroclastic flow deposit which is wholly confined within the pre-Aira basin. The Tsumaya pyroclastic flow buried the pre-Aira topography such as box canyons (formed by older pyroclastic flow deposits). The maximum thickness in the caldera is 130 m (430 ft) in the Kokubu area with the average thickness being 30 m (98 ft) or less. [9] The Tsumaya pyroclastic flow consists of a "pale pinkish brown glass matrix containing a small amount of pumice and lithic fragments" [9] consistent with the Osumi pumice fall and the Tsumaya pyroclastic flow occurred from the same vent. There was only a very short period between the Tsumaya pyroclastic flow and the formation of the present caldera in the Ito eruption. [9]

In contrast the Ito pyroclastic flow extends outside the basin as well as occupying inside the basin. [9] The Aira-Tn tephra falls from this eruption [2] were up to 0.800 m (2 ft 7.5 in) thick in the south east and this and Ito Ignimbrite up to 160 m (520 ft) thick, are the most significant pyroclastic deposits. [8] The depth of the ash fall over the whole island of Kyūshū was over 32 cm (13 in) and more than 4 cm (1.6 in) for much of Japan [13]

Volcanic activity

Relationship between Aira and Kirishima magmatic systems

Aira caldera is one of the most active and hazardous calderas in the world. It is home to the Kirishima volcanoes, a group of active volcanoes at the north end of Aira caldera. One of these volcanoes, Shinmoedake, has produced two strong magmato-phreatic eruptions, separated by almost 300 years. Starting in December 2009, active diving and inflation before the outbreak were noticed. A series of sub-plinian events then occurred from January 19 to the 31st. [15] The first phase (eruption climax) was accompanied by a strong co-eruptive deflation.

Aira Caldera may respond to small eruptions that come from a common reservoir. However, not all the volcanic systems are connected all the time as magma pathways open and close. The connection between Aira and Kirishima represents the clearest example of volcano interconnectivity revealed by geodetic monitoring. The inflation of one volcano can enhance the eruption probability of a neighbouring volcano. The subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate is the reason for the active volcanism. [15]

Aira Caldera and Kirishima's magma storage is linked through tunnels that extend horizontally over tens of kilometers which is able to be explained through the presence of hotspots. [15] However, the volcanic systems are not always connected since the magma pathways open and close. For example, the Shinmoedake vertical connection was closed for approximately 300 years until reactivation.

The changes in volume for the Aira and Kirishima systems suggest they had different inflation and deflation periods. Between 2009 and 2013, there was evidence of inflation in the Aira system. However, after the 2011 eruption at Kirishima, the Aira system experienced a deflation. This was Aira caldera's only deflation between 2009 and 2013. [15]

Inflation of Aira Caldera

The magma storage underlying Aira Caldera has been feeding into the stratovolcano Sakurajima, expanding over time. However, there have been points in time where the chamber has deflated as a result of eruptions releasing the pressure built which cannot be explained by stress changes. Thus, it has been described as a consequence of magma withdrawing from the Aira system when Kirishima was replenishing. A prime example is the Sakurajima eruption in 1914 (approximately 1.5 km3 in volume), which caused the magma chamber to sink 60 cm. 58 people were killed in the eruption. [4] For this amount of magma to erupt, it would take approximately 130 years for the chamber to refill as according to Dr James Hickey and his co-authors. Dr Hickey stated "These results were made possible by combining data from various monitoring methods and applying them to new numerical modelling techniques, moving away from older modelling methods that have been in use since the 1950s." [4]

Nevertheless, there are continuous measurements of the ground movement that indicate the area is now inflating. Recent GPS deformation measurements, amalgamated with geophysical data and computer modelling enable the reconstruction of the magma system beneath the caldera. Through this, Dr James Hickey and his co-authors were able to create a depiction of the tunnels beneath the caldera.

They discovered that magma is filling the magma chamber at a faster rate than the Sakurajima volcano erupts. The reservoir is expanding each year as a volume of 14 million m3 is supplied to the system. [4] Dr Haruhisa Nakamichi, Associate Professor at the Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, and co-author, said: "It is already passed by 100 years since the 1914 eruption, less than 30 years is left until a next expected big eruption, Kagoshima city office has prepared new evacuation plans from Sakurajima, after experiences of evacuation of the crisis in August 2015." [4]

A group of scientists led by Dr Dominique Remy used Synthetique Aperture Radar (SAR) to detect levels of inflation of Aira Caldera over the Kokubu urban district. They observed a change in the pattern of Kokubu's surface. Through a model of the deformation field of the caldera, it is predicted there is "a maximum volume increase of 20–30×106 m3 between 1995 and 1998." They deduced an inflation of approximately 70 mm (2.8 in) at the centre of the caldera and 40 mm (1.6 in) in the south urban area of Kokubu. [5]

Flora and fauna

The plants near Sakurajima regrow after eruptions. The Japanese bay trees and Japanese black pines are two species which grow furthest away. These plants are able to repopulate; however they cannot withstand the debris and pumice after an eruption. Eurya japonica and Alnus firma can be found in the middle ground away from the peak. They are able to grow back from an eruption and withstand its destruction more than the vegetation furthest away. Japanese Pampas grass and knotweed are located closest to the volcano. They respond quickly after an eruption and form a meadow of mosses and lichens during regrowth. Nevertheless, It takes many years for the forest to regrow. This enables people to observe the changes of vegetation from the different eruptions in different eras.

Kagoshima Bay (Kinko Bay) is home to much wildlife; including 1000 different species of fish, a population of dolphins, as well as rare creatures such as the Satsumahaorimushi tube worm. [3] Rare minerals exist on the sea bottom with hydrothermal vents including volcanic chimneys.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pyroclastic rock</span> Clastic rocks composed solely or primarily of volcanic materials

Pyroclastic rocks are clastic rocks composed of rock fragments produced and ejected by explosive volcanic eruptions. The individual rock fragments are known as pyroclasts. Pyroclastic rocks are a type of volcaniclastic deposit, which are deposits made predominantly of volcanic particles. 'Phreatic' pyroclastic deposits are a variety of pyroclastic rock that forms from volcanic steam explosions and they are entirely made of accidental clasts. 'Phreatomagmatic' pyroclastic deposits are formed from explosive interaction of magma with groundwater. The word pyroclastic is derived from the Greek πῦρ, meaning fire; and κλαστός, meaning broken.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aira, Kagoshima</span> City in Kyūshū, Japan

Aira is a city located in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. It is located west of Kirishima and north of Kagoshima. As of 29 February 2024, the city had an estimated population of 77,948 in 38338 households, and a population density of 340 persons per km². The total area of the city is 231.25 km2 (89.29 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sakurajima</span> Stratovolcano in Kagoshima Prefecture, Kyushu, Japan

Sakurajima is an active stratovolcano, formerly an island and now a peninsula, in Kagoshima Prefecture in Kyushu, Japan. The lava flows of the 1914 eruption connected it with the Ōsumi Peninsula. It is the most active volcano in Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kikai Caldera</span> Mostly-submerged caldera in the Ōsumi Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan

Kikai Caldera is a massive, mostly submerged caldera up to 19 kilometres (12 mi) in diameter in the Ōsumi Islands of Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kuwae</span> Submarine caldera between the Epi and Tongoa islands in Vanuatu

Kuwae was a landmass that existed in the vicinity of Tongoa and was destroyed by volcanic eruption in fifteenth century, probably through caldera subsidence. The exact location of the caldera is debated. A submarine caldera, now known as Kuwae caldera that is located between the Epi and Tongoa islands, is a potential candidate. Kuwae caldera cuts through the flank of the Tavani Ruru volcano on Epi and the northwestern end of Tongoa. Another potential candidate is a proposed caldera between Tongoa and Tongariki.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Oruanui eruption</span> Worlds most recent supereruption, of Taupō Volcano, New Zealand

The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupō Volcano was the world's most recent supereruption, and largest phreatomagmatic eruption characterised to date.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Phreatomagmatic eruption</span> Volcanic eruption involving both steam and magma

Phreatomagmatic eruptions are volcanic eruptions resulting from interaction between magma and water. They differ from exclusively magmatic eruptions and phreatic eruptions. Unlike phreatic eruptions, the products of phreatomagmatic eruptions contain juvenile (magmatic) clasts. It is common for a large explosive eruption to have magmatic and phreatomagmatic components.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hatepe eruption</span> Major eruption of Taupō volcano

The Hatepe eruption, named for the Hatepe Plinian pumice tephra layer, sometimes referred to as the Taupō eruption or Horomatangi Reef Unit Y eruption, is dated to 232 CE ± 10 and was Taupō Volcano's most recent major eruption. It is thought to be New Zealand's largest eruption within the last 20,000 years. The eruption ejected some 45–105 km3 (11–25 cu mi) of bulk tephra, of which just over 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) was ejected in approximately 6–7 minutes. This makes it one of the largest eruptions in the last 5,000 years, comparable to the Minoan eruption in the 2nd millennium BCE, the 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain, the 1257 eruption of Mount Samalas, and the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shirasu-Daichi</span> A pyroclastic volcanic plateau in Southern Kyūshū Japan

Shirasu-Daichi (シラス台地) is a broad pyroclastic plateau in southern Japan. It covers almost all of southern Kyūshū, which was formed by pyroclastic flows. It covers more than half of Kagoshima Prefecture, as well as 16% of Miyazaki Prefecture. The Japanese Shirasu (シラス) is a local name of the pumiceous sediments in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The term has been recommended to be used just for the non-welded ignimbrite component in the Japanese geological literature. Daichi (台地) means plateau.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Akahoya eruption</span> Ultra-Plinian eruption in Kyushu, Japan, at around 6,500 BP

The Akahoya eruption or Kikai-Akahoya eruption was the strongest known volcanic eruption of the Kikai Caldera in Kyūshū, Japan. It ejected 332–457 km3 (80–110 cu mi) of volcanic material, giving it a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kagoshima Bay</span> Inlet in Kyūshū, Japan

Kagoshima Bay also known as Kinkō Bay, Kinko Bay is a deep inlet of the East China Sea on the coast of Japan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Taupō Volcano</span> Supervolcano in New Zealand

Lake Taupō, in the centre of New Zealand's North Island, fills the caldera of the Taupō Volcano, a large rhyolitic supervolcano. This huge volcano has produced two of the world's most powerful eruptions in geologically recent times.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">946 eruption of Paektu Mountain</span> Major volcanic eruption in Korea

The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain, a stratovolcano on the border of the North Korea and China also known as Changbaishan, occurred in late 946 CE. This event is known as the Millennium Eruption or Tianchi eruption. It is one of the most powerful volcanic eruptions in recorded history; classified at least a VEI 6.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Aso Caldera</span> Caldera in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan

Aso caldera is a geographical feature of Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. It stretches 25 kilometers north to south and 18 kilometers east to west. The central core "Aso Gogaku" is the five major mountains in the area. Aso valley (Asodani) runs along the northern base of Mount Aso and Nango valley (Nangodani) along the south. According to research of caldera sediment, lakes used to exist in these valleys. The dried up lake areas have come to be called Old Aso Lake, Kugino Lake, and Aso Valley Lake. The Kikuchi, Shirakawa and Kurokawa rivers now drain the caldera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Campanian Ignimbrite eruption</span> Volcanic eruption about 40,000 years ago

The Campanian Ignimbrite eruption was a major volcanic eruption in the Mediterranean during the late Quaternary, classified 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). The event has been attributed to the Archiflegreo volcano, the 12-by-15-kilometre-wide caldera of the Phlegraean Fields, located 20 km (12 mi) west of Mount Vesuvius under the western outskirts of the city of Naples and the Gulf of Pozzuoli, Italy. It is the largest explosive volcanic event in Europe in the past 200,000 years, and the largest eruption of Campi Fleigrei caldera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Kulshan caldera</span> Pleistocene caldera volcano

The Kulshan caldera is a Pleistocene volcano in the North Cascades of Washington and one of the few calderas identified in the entire Cascade Range. It is the product of the Mount Baker volcanic field, which has a history stretching back to possibly 3.722 million years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whakamaru Caldera</span> A large volcanic caldera in New Zealand

Whakamaru Caldera was created in a massive supereruption 335,000 years ago and is approximately 30 by 40 km in size and is located in the North Island of New Zealand. It now contains active geothermal areas as well as the later Maroa Caldera.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mangakino caldera complex</span> A volcanic caldera in New Zealand

The Mangakino caldera complex is the westernmost and one of oldest extinct rhyolitic caldera volcanoes in the Taupō Volcanic Zone of New Zealand's North Island. It produced about a million years ago in the Kidnappers eruption of 1,200 km3 (287.9 cu mi), the most widespread ignimbrite deposits on Earth being over 45,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi) and was closely followed in time by the smaller 200 km3 (48.0 cu mi) Rocky Hill eruption. The Kidnappers eruption had a estimated VEI of 8 and has been assigned a total eruption volume of 2,760 km3 (662.2 cu mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ata Caldera</span> Mostly-submerged caldera in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan

Ata Caldera, containing the Ata North Caldera, Mount Kaimon and Ikeda Caldera amongst other volcanoes, is a massive, ill defined, mostly submerged volcanic caldera associated with the southern portions of Kagoshima Bay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ikeda Caldera</span> Caldera in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan

Ikeda Caldera, is a volcanic caldera filled now with Lake Ikeda and associated with the older Ata Caldera on the Satsuma Peninsula.

References

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