American Palestine Line

Last updated

The flag of the American Palestine Line American Palestine Line house flag.svg
The flag of the American Palestine Line

The American Palestine Line was a steamship company, formed in 1924 in the U.S., for the purpose of providing direct passenger service from New York to Mandatory Palestine. It was reportedly the first steamship company owned and operated by Jewish people. The company negotiated to purchase three ocean liners from the United States Shipping Board, but it was only able to purchase one, SS President Arthur, a former North German Lloyd steamer that operated as Princess Alice before being seized by the United States during World War I. After refurbishing the liner, the company inaugurated service between New York and Mandatory Palestine in March 1925, when President Arthur sailed on her maiden voyage. A crowd of 15,000 witnessed ceremonies that included songs, prayers, and speeches in English and Yiddish. The company claimed that President Arthur was the first ocean liner to fly the Zionist flag at sea and the first ocean liner ever to have female officers. [1]

Contents

The line had labor difficulties and financial difficulties throughout its existence. On President Arthur's first trip in 1925, rumors of a mutiny were reported in The New York Times , and several crew members got into an altercation with members of the Blackshirts, the Italian fascist paramilitary group, when the liner made an intermediary stop in Naples. On her second voyage, the ship's master-at-arms was killed by a fellow crew member. Financial difficulties included unpaid bills and resultant court actions as well as accusations of fraud against company officers that were leveled in the press. In late 1925 the company was placed in the hands of a receiver; President Arthur—after a two-alarm fire in her forward cargo hold—ended up back in the hands of the United States Shipping Board (USSB), and the company's office furniture and fixtures were sold at auction in early 1926.

Background

SS President Arthur was the former SS Princess Alice of North German Lloyd, seen here while interned in the Philippines. SS Princess Alice interned at Cebu, Philippines.jpg
SS President Arthur was the former SS Princess Alice of North German Lloyd, seen here while interned in the Philippines.

The newly formed American Palestine Line, reportedly the first ever steamship company owned and operated by Jews, began working to institute direct passenger service from New York to Palestine. [2] To that end, the company began negotiations with the United States Shipping Board (USSB) to purchase three former German ocean liners, sister ships President Fillmore and President Arthur and the smaller Mount Clay. [3] [4] On October 9, 1924, the American Palestine Line's president—Jacob S. Strahl, a New York Supreme Court justice—announced the purchase of President Arthur from the USSB, with plans to begin the Palestine service the following March. [2] Strahl also publicly announced American Palestine's intent to acquire President Fillmore at the same time; [2] plans for that acquisition and that of Mount Clay, however, never materialized. [5]

The ship

SS President Arthur was formerly Kiautschou, a Barbarossa-class ocean liner launched in September 1900 for the Hamburg America Line's Far East passenger and mail service. When Hamburg America withdrew from the service, the liner was traded to North German Lloyd, and regularly used—under the new name of Princess Alice—on both North Atlantic and Far East passenger routes. The liner was interned in the U.S.-controlled Philippines at the outset of World War I and was seized upon the American entry to the conflict. The ship was used as a transport ship for both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Army under the name Princess Matoika. After some post-war use as a passenger liner and yet another name change—this one in honor of the 21st U.S. President, Chester A. Arthur—she was taken out of service when changes in U.S. laws severely curtailed the number of immigrants that could enter the country in the early 1920s. At the time of the purchase by American Palestine, the ship had been laid up in Baltimore since late 1923. [6]

News reports the following month fixed the purchase price of President Arthur at $60,000 cash, plus assurances that the liner would be reconditioned within six months. [7] Announced plans for reconditioning included reducing passenger capacity to 675 and increasing the cargo capacity to 4,000 long tons (4,100  t ). Also on tap were swimming pools, a game room, a gymnasium, a lecture hall, a social hall, and a moving picture theater. [2] The line had originally planned to change the name of the liner to White Palace, but that was never brought about. [8]

At the ceremonies for the maiden voyage of SS President Arthur, Rabbi Stephen S. Wise prayed for the voyage's success. Stephen Samuel Wise cropped.jpg
At the ceremonies for the maiden voyage of SS President Arthur, Rabbi Stephen S. Wise prayed for the voyage's success.

After undergoing reconditioning at Morse Dry Dock & Repair in Brooklyn, President Arthur was taken out for a 100-nautical-mile (190 km) shakedown cruise on March 7, 1925. Steaming off the New Jersey coast, President Arthur, expected by American Palestine officials to top out at 16 knots (30 km/h), reached a reported maximum cruising speed of 19.7 knots (36.5 km/h), which company officials claimed would reduce her travel time to Palestine by two or three days. At the end of the shakedown, the liner was docked at the foot of West Houston Street in preparation for her maiden voyage five days later. [9]

The acquisition of President Arthur by American Palestine inspired Jewish lyricist Solomon Small to pen the song "President Arthur's Zion Ship" which contained these lines in its refrain: [10]

President Arthur, sail
Blazing for my children a trail.
I have waited ages long
With a mother's yearning strong. [10]

Service begins

On the morning of March 12, 1925, crowds started gathering at President Arthur 's pier at 7:00 a.m. By the time the ceremonies—broadcast by New York's municipal radio station, WNYC—opened with the singing of both "The Star-Spangled Banner" and "Hatikvah", [11] the crowd had swelled to 15,000 in number. [12] The festivities included speeches and prayers from Orthodox Rabbi Moses S. Margolies; David Yellin, Vice Mayor of Jerusalem, who addressed the crowd in Yiddish; Rabbi David de Sola Pool; [11] and Rabbi Stephen S. Wise. [12] Cantor Josef Rosenblatt sang to the crowd and a telegram from New York merchant Nathan Straus, unable to attend the event, was read aloud. American Palestine Line president Jacob S. Strahl, in his remarks, made the claim that the sailing of President Arthur marked the first appearance "in more than 2,000 years of the flag of Judea on the high seas". [11]

The dedication of the Hebrew University at Mount Scopus on April 1, 1925. Many passengers on President Arthur's maiden voyage for the American Palestine Line attended the ceremonies. Founding of the Hebrew University.jpg
The dedication of the Hebrew University at Mount Scopus on April 1, 1925. Many passengers on President Arthur's maiden voyage for the American Palestine Line attended the ceremonies.

The ship, with Stars of David painted on her funnels, [13] pulled away from the dock at eight minutes before noon, nearly an hour later than her planned departure time, and headed to Haifa, with an intermediate stop in Naples. [11] On board were some 400 passengers from all over the United States and Canada, [14] most of whom were tourists wanting to see the Holy Land. [12] Many of the passengers, including a contingent from the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, [11] were also sailing in order to attend the dedication of the Hebrew University at Mount Scopus by former British Foreign Secretary Lord Balfour. President Arthur also carried agricultural equipment and trucks to be used for farm development in Palestine. [12] In addition, the liner featured Bernice P. Schmitt and Rebecca Adelman, who, according to contemporary news reports, were the first ever female officers on an ocean liner. [15]

Herman Hirsch, a Jewish male from Chicago on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, kept an account of President Arthur's maiden voyage. On Friday, March 13, one day into the voyage, Hirsch reported that the torah was dedicated and a procession to songs and music accompanied a march over all parts of the ship. Afterwards, Rabbi Aaron M. Ashinsky of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, officiated at a service held in a chapel provided for the passengers. [16]

Newspapers published radio dispatches emanating from President Arthur throughout her maiden voyage, thanks to a powerful new radio set installed aboard the liner. [17] On March 14 the liner was able to avoid the worst of a gale that slowed Leviathan of the United States Lines, [18] and on March 26 President Arthur was able to avoid a waterspout 50 nautical miles (93 km) east of Gibraltar. At Gibraltar, the local Jewish community chartered a ship to escort President Arthur through the Mediterranean. [19] The ship docked at Naples on March 27, [20] four days later than her planned arrival there, [11] and departed the same day. [20]

The liner arrived at Haifa on March 31, nearly a week late. [11] Herman Hirsch reported that a passenger from Chicago, Jacob Drapekin, 72, had died aboard the ship on March 24. The man's dying wish was to be buried in the Holy Land, and the crew of President Arthur helped fulfill his wishes. After arrival in Haifa, his flag-draped coffin was placed on deck and services were conducted in English and Hebrew by Rabbi Ashinsky before the body was taken ashore for interment. [16] A sizable crowd, comprising delegations from Jerusalem, Jaffa, and Tel Aviv, greeted the arriving ship. Most of the passengers on President Arthur were hurried to Jerusalem for the Hebrew University dedication ceremony the next day. [21]

The anchorage at Haifa as it appeared around the time of President Arthur's visits Anchorage at Haifa, early 20th century.jpg
The anchorage at Haifa as it appeared around the time of President Arthur's visits

President Arthur departed Haifa on April 4 for a ten-day excursion in the Mediterranean, calling at Jaffa, Beirut, Alexandria, and Naples, among others, before sailing for the United States from Haifa on April 17. [22] While docked at Naples on April 23, crewmen from President Arthur got into a confrontation with members of the Blackshirts, the Italian fascist paramilitary group. Five of the Blackshirts had broken noses and black eyes; five American seamen were arrested and a further 15 Americans swam out to their steamer to avoid arrest. [23] After calling at Halifax, [24] the liner docked at Pier 86 in New York on March 8, carrying among its cargo 75,000 bags of onions from Alexandria, 16,000 cases of lemons from Palermo, and two cases of Jaffa oranges for philanthropist Nathan Straus. Only 500 well-wishers greeted the ship, arriving as it did on the Jewish sabbath, but President Arthur was greeted by the largest police detail in many years because of rumors of a mutiny on board the ship. [25] Sources are unclear as to what actually happened aboard the ship, but it is known that virtually the entire crew, including the captain, was replaced before the next voyage. [26]

On May 12 President Arthur sailed on her second voyage to Palestine, counting Hemda Ben-Yahuda, the widow of Hebrew linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, among her passengers. [27] During the trip, an altercation between a Steward and the ship's master-at-arms resulted in the death of the latter while the ship was in Naples. [26] Though the steward was arrested by Italian authorities, he was acquitted of murder by the Assize Court at Naples. [28] After a return to New York, President Arthur sailed for Haifa on July 19 for what would be her last voyage for American Palestine. [24]

Demise

By this time, the company, perpetually undercapitalized by its own admission, [29] faced mounting financial troubles. On July 10, the company had to post an indemnity bond to avoid the impoundment of President Arthur for a disputed bill owed to Morse Dry Dock for the ship's 1924 refit. [30] The following month, President Arthur was used as collateral for $100,000 loan from a Bronx bank, but it was too little, too late. [30] American Palestine Line was placed in receivership on September 11 by federal judge Thomas D. Thacher of the U.S. District Court after suit was brought by a creditor. [29] [30] Eight days later, President Arthur, docked at the foot of West 34th Street, experienced a two-alarm fire in her forward cargo hold that brought out both land-based firefighters and the New York City Fire Department fireboat James Duane . [31] In December, the line was accused of fraud in some of its prior financial dealings, [30] charges the company denied. [32] By the time all the legal wrangling was finished, President Arthur was back in the hands of the USSB, [33] and the furniture and fixtures of the American Palestine offices were sold at public auction by the company's receiver in early March 1926. [34]

Notes

  1. ↑ "Elizabeth Chisolm Engaged to Wed", The New York Times , March 9, 1925. Accessed July 9, 2008. "The President Arthur will be the first ship in 2,000 years to sail under the Zionist Flag."
  2. 1 2 3 4 "Zionists to run fleet". The New York Times. 1924-10-10. p. 21.
  3. ↑ Davis, p. 148.
  4. ↑ The three liners had operated under the names of Hamburg (Bonsor, Vol. 1, p. 410), Princess Alice (Drechsel, pp. 338–39), and Prinz Eitel Friedrich (Drechsel, p. 341), respectively, in German passenger service.
  5. ↑ Bonsor, Vol. 1, p. 410; Drechsel, p. 341.
  6. ↑ Drechsel, pp. 338–39.
  7. ↑ "Jews to buy liner; plan service to Palestine". The Washington Post . 1924-11-05. p. 11.
  8. ↑ Drechsel, p. 339.
  9. ↑ "Palestine liner tested". The New York Times . 1925-03-08. p. 5.
  10. 1 2 "Our Story Image Gallery List". Center for Jewish History. 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-04-09. Retrieved 2008-04-26.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "Palestine liner gets big send-off". The New York Times. 1925-03-13. p. 8.
  12. 1 2 3 4 "Zionists sail for dedication of university". The Atlanta Constitution . 1925-03-13. p. 20.
  13. ↑ "Zion flag aloft as 400 sail to promised land". Chicago Daily Tribune. 1925-03-13. p. 20.
  14. ↑ "City bids godspeed to Holy Land ship". The New York Times. 1925-03-12. p. 22.
  15. ↑ "Capt. W. J. Breen, S. S. President Arthur, has commissioned…". The Christian Science Monitor (photo caption). 1925-03-17. p. 9.
  16. 1 2 Hirsch, Herman (2004-05-09). "My trip to Palestine". Art Hirsch. Archived from the original (Personal diary from June 1925) on 2005-02-06. Retrieved 2008-07-08.
  17. ↑ "Ship has powerful set". The Christian Science Monitor . 1925-04-03. p. 12.
  18. ↑ "Passengers for Palestine enjoying trip, says a radio". The New York Times. 1925-03-18.
  19. ↑ "Sights huge water spout". The New York Times. 1925-03-27. p. 13.
  20. 1 2 "Zion liner due at Haifa". The New York Times. 1925-03-29. p. E2.
  21. ↑ "Holy Land greets New York steamer". The New York Times. 1925-04-02. p. 8.
  22. ↑ "Kings greet Zionist ship". The New York Times. 1925-04-04. p. 7.
  23. ↑ "American seamen clash with fascisti". The Washington Post. 1925-04-24. p. 1.
  24. 1 2 Bonsor, Vol. 2, p. 567.
  25. ↑ "Big police squad meets Jewish ship". The New York Times. 1925-05-09. p. 6.
  26. 1 2 "Kills master-at-arms on President Arthur". The New York Times. 1925-06-24. p. 2.
  27. ↑ "Zionist ship sails after delay in river". The New York Times. 1925-05-12. p. 25.
  28. ↑ "Acquits American sailor". The New York Times. 1926-02-14. p. 25.
  29. 1 2 "Palestine ship line in receiver's hands". The New York Times. 1925-09-12. p. 7.
  30. 1 2 3 4 "Say Palestine Line got bond by fraud". The New York Times. 1925-12-04. p. 11.
  31. ↑ "Fire on President Arthur". The New York Times. 1925-09-20. p. 28. The news article calls the fireboat the James Duana, but listings at Fireboat.org identify her as James Duane.
  32. ↑ "Palestine Line upholds officers". The New York Times. 1925-12-15. p. 18.
  33. ↑ "Local yard to rebuild liner". Los Angeles Times. 1926-08-19. p. 10.
  34. ↑ "Bankruptcy sales". The New York Times. 1926-02-24. p. 38.

Related Research Articles

USS <i>Susquehanna</i> (ID-3016) United States Naval Ship

USS Susquehanna (ID-3016) was a transport for the United States Navy during World War I. She was the second U.S. Navy ship to be named for the Susquehanna River. Before the war she operated at SS Rhein, an ocean liner for North German Lloyd. She was the lead ship of her class of three ocean liners. After the end of World War I, the ship operated briefly in passenger service as SS Susquehanna. Laid up in 1922, Susquehanna was sold to Japanese ship breakers in 1928 and scrapped.

USS <i>Freedom</i> (ID-3024) Cargo and transport ship in the United States Navy in World War I

USS Freedom (ID-3024) was a cargo and transport ship in the United States Navy in World War I. Originally Wittekind for the North German Lloyd line, the ship also served as USAT Iroquois and USAT Freedom after being seized by the United States in 1917.

SS <i>Vaterland</i> (1913) Ocean liner

SS Vaterland was an ocean liner launched on 3 April 1913 and began service in 1914 for Germany's Hamburg America Line. The ship, second of three running mates and then the largest passenger ship in the world, made her first voyage to New York arriving on 21 May 1914 under the command of a Commodore and four Captains of the German Naval Reserve to celebrations featuring German and American officials at the line's Hoboken facilities.

MS <i>Vulcania</i> Italian ocean liner (1926–1974)

The MS Vulcania was an Italian ocean liner built by Cantiere Navale Triestino, Monfalcone, northern Italy, in 1926 for the Italian company, Cosulich Line.

USS <i>Refuge</i> Hospital ship of the United States Navy

USS Refuge (AH-11), was a hospital ship of the United States Navy during World War II. The ship was built in 1921 by the New York Shipbuilding Corp., of Camden, New Jersey, as SS Blue Hen State, but was renamed President Garfield in 1923 and then SS President Madison in 1940 for service with American President Lines. Acquired by the Navy from the War Shipping Administration on 11 April 1942 the ship was commissioned as the transport USS Kenmore until conversion to a hospital ship.

SS <i>George Washington</i> Ocean liner built in 1908 for the North German Lloyd

SS George Washington was an ocean liner built in 1908 for the Bremen-based North German Lloyd and was named after George Washington, the first President of the United States. The ship was also known as USS George Washington (ID-3018) and USAT George Washington in service of the United States Navy and United States Army, respectively, during World War I. In the interwar period, she reverted to her original name of SS George Washington. During World War II, the ship was known as both USAT George Washington and, briefly, as USS Catlin (AP-19), in a short, second stint in the U.S. Navy.

SS <i>President Cleveland</i> (1920) American passenger vessel

SS President Cleveland was originally built as Golden State for the United States Shipping Board (USSB), one of the planned World War I troop transports converted before construction into passenger and cargo vessels launched as Emergency Fleet Corporation Design 1029 ships first known, along with the smaller Design 1095 versions, in the trade as "State" ships due to names assigned for the nicknames of states and later as "535s" for their length overall. Almost all ships of both designs were renamed for United States presidents by May 1921, with Golden State being renamed President Cleveland. As one of the USSB-owned ships operated by agents of the board, President Cleveland was allocated to and operated by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company until sold by the USSB to the Dollar Steamship Line in 1925. After the demise of that line and creation of a new, replacement line, American President Lines, the ship remained with that line until government acquisition for the Second World War.

USS <i>Princess Matoika</i> United States Navy transport ship

USS Princess Matoika (ID-2290) was a transport ship for the United States Navy during World War I. Before the war, she was a Barbarossa-class ocean liner that sailed as SS Kiautschou for the Hamburg America Line and as SS Princess Alice for North German Lloyd. After the war she served as the United States Army transport ship USAT Princess Matoika. In post-war civilian service she was SS Princess Matoika until 1922, SS President Arthur until 1927, and SS City of Honolulu until she was scrapped in 1933.

SS <i>Kroonland</i> American steamship (1902–1927)

SS Kroonland was an ocean liner for International Mercantile Marine (IMM) from her launch in 1902 until she was scrapped in 1927. Kroonland was the sister ship of Finland and a near sister ship of Vaderland and Zeeland of the same company. Kroonland sailed for IMM's Red Star Line for 15 years, and also sailed for IMM's American Line and Panama Pacific Line. During World War I, the ship served as United States Army transport USAT Kroonland through April 1918, and as the Navy auxiliary USS Kroonland (ID-1541) from April 1918 to October 1919.

SS <i>Zeeland</i> (1900) British and Belgian ocean liner

SS Zeeland was a British and Belgian ocean liner of the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM). She was a sister ship to Vaderland and a near sister ship to Kroonland and Finland of the same company. Although her name was Dutch, it was changed during World War I to the less German-sounding SS Northland. She served for a time as a British troop ship under the name HMT Northland. Reverting to Zeeland after the war, the ship was renamed SS Minnesota late in her career. Zeeland sailed primarily for IMM's Red Star Line for most of her early career, but also sailed under charter for the White Star Line, the International Navigation Company, the American Line, and the Atlantic Transport Line, all IMM subsidiary lines. The pursers safe survived the scrapyard at Inverkeithing and after residing in a wardrobe for 80 years is currently on display in a local private home.

<i>Barbarossa</i>-class ocean liner Ocean liner class of the German Empire

The Barbarossa class was a class of ocean liners of North German Lloyd and the Hamburg America Line of the German Empire. Of the ten ships built between 1896 and 1902, six were built by AG Vulcan Stettin, three were built by Blohm & Voss, and one was built by Schichau-Werke; all were built in Germany. They averaged 11,000 gross register tons (GRT) and featured twin screw propellers driven by quadruple-expansion steam engines.

SS <i>La Bretagne</i> Ocean liner (1886–1923)

SS La Bretagne was an ocean liner that sailed for the Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (CGT) from her launch in 1886 to 1912, sailing primarily in transatlantic service on the North Atlantic. Sold to Compagnie de Navigation Sud-Atlantique in 1912, she sailed for that company under her original name and, later, as SS Alesia on France–South America routes. The liner was sold for scrapping in the Netherlands in December 1923, but was lost while being towed.

USS <i>West Carnifax</i> Cargo ship in United states navy

USS West Carnifax (ID-3812) was a cargo ship in the United States Navy shortly after World War I. After she was decommissioned from the Navy, the ship was known as SS West Carnifax, SS Exford, and SS Pan Royal in civilian service under American registry.

SS <i>Merion</i> American ocean liner

SS Merion was an ocean liner built in 1902 for the American Line, a subsidiary line of the International Mercantile Marine (IMM). She also sailed for the Red Star Line and the Dominion Line—both subsidiary lines of IMM—during her passenger career. After the outbreak of World War I she was bought by the British Admiralty and converted to serve as a decoy resembling the Royal Navy battlecruiser HMS Tiger. In May 1915, while posing as Tiger in the Aegean Sea, Merion was sunk by the German submarine SM UB-8.

RMS <i>Saxonia</i> (1899)

The first RMS Saxonia was a passenger ship of the British Cunard Line. Between 1900 and 1925, Saxonia operated on North Atlantic and Mediterranean passenger routes, and she saw military service during World War I (1914–1918).

SS <i>President Harrison</i> Steam passenger-cargo ship built in 1919–1920

Wolverine State was a steam passenger-cargo ship built in 1919–1920 by New York Shipbuilding Company of Camden for the United States Shipping Board (USSB) as part of the wartime shipbuilding program of the Emergency Fleet Corporation (EFC) to restore the nation's Merchant Marine. The ship was initially employed on the United States to India route until its cancellation in Spring 1922. After remodeling the vessel was briefly used by the Los Angeles Steamship Company on a run between Los Angeles and Honolulu as an emergency replacement for one of their burned out steamers. In April 1922 the steamer was renamed President Harrison. In 1923 she conducted several trips between California and the east coast of South America, before being sold together with several other ships of her class to the Dollar Steamship Company. The vessel was captured in 1941 by the Japanese after she was deliberately run aground to avoid the capture. After repairs, the ship was renamed Kachidoki Maru (勝鬨丸), put under control of NYK Line and entered the Japan to Taiwan route, but soon after was requisitioned by the Imperial Japanese Army. Under IJA control the ship sailed between Japan, Singapore and the Philippines carrying troops and military supplies. She was torpedoed and sunk on 12 September 1944 on one of her regular trips, while carrying 950 Allied prisoners of war of which 431 were killed.

USS <i>Eten</i>

USS Eten (ID-4041) was a troop transport commissioned in 1919 to assist in the post-World War I repatriation of U.S. troops from France.

USS <i>Black Arrow</i>

USS Black Arrow (ID-1534) was a troop transport commissioned in 1919 to assist in the post-World War I repatriation of U.S. troops from France. Black Arrow was originally SS Rhaetia, a passenger-cargo ship built in Germany in 1904–05 for the Hamburg-America Line. From 1905 to 1914, Rhaetia operated primarily between Hamburg, Germany and South America, though she was also intermittently employed as an immigrant ship to the United States. With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, Rhaetia was interned in Philadelphia.

SS <i>Minnekahda</i> Transatlantic liner

SS Minnekahda was a transatlantic ocean liner that was launched in Ireland in 1917 and scrapped in Scotland in 1936. She was laid down in 1914 but the First World War delayed her completion. Because of the war she was completed in 1918 as a troop ship, and then worked as a cargo ship.

SS <i>Byron</i>

SS Byron was a transatlantic ocean liner that was built in England in 1914 and scrapped in Italy in 1937. She was launched as Vasilefs Constantinos, named after Constantine I of Greece. In 1919 she was renamed Megali Hellas, the Greek name for the Ancient Greek settlements in Sicily and southern Italy. In 1923 she was renamed Byron, in recognition of the role of Lord Byron (1788–1824) in the Greek War of Independence (1821–29).

References

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.