Baltimore City Health Department

Last updated

Baltimore City Health Department
Agency overview
FormedSeptember 12, 1793
JurisdictionBaltimore City
Headquarters1001 East Fayette Street Baltimore, Maryland 21202
Employees1,100 (2015)
Annual budget$130 million (2015)
Agency executive
  • Simone Johnson (interim), Health Commissioner
Website health.baltimorecity.gov

The Baltimore City Health Department(BCHD) is the public health agency of the city of Baltimore, Maryland. BCHD convenes and collaborates with other city agencies, health care providers, community organizations and funders to "empower Baltimoreans with the knowledge, access, and environment that will enable healthy living." [1]

Contents

The Baltimore City Health Department is organized into four divisions: Administration, Youth Wellness and Community Health, Population Health and Disease Prevention, and Aging and CARE (Commission on Aging and Retirement Education) Services. The Health Department has a wide-ranging area of responsibility, including acute communicable diseases, animal control, chronic disease prevention, emergency preparedness, HIV/STD, maternal and child health, restaurant inspections, school health, substance use, environmental health, health clinics, senior services, and youth violence issues. [1]

The agency employs a workforce of approximately 1,100 employees [2] and manages a budget of approximately $126 million. Dr. Letitia Dzirasa was named Baltimore City Health Commissioner in 2019. [3]

History

The Baltimore City Health Department was founded in 1793 and is considered the oldest continuously operating health department in the United States. [4] It was established in response to the first recorded yellow fever outbreak in Baltimore at Fell's Point. On September 12, 1793, Governor Thomas Lee issued a proclamation appointing Baltimore's first health officers, Drs. John Worthington and John Ross . [5]

Prior to 1793, Baltimore lacked a public health system but faced various health problems. For the majority of the 18th century, public health activity was centered on the reporting of “nuisances” and the government of Baltimore was managed by the town and special commissioners. [6] In 1745, the town issued a prohibition against geese and swine running at large and in 1750, it enforced the removal of “stinking fish and dead creates or carrion” left out on streets. [6] At the meetings of the Continental Congress in 1776 and 1777, delegates of the Continental Congress complained about the uncleanliness of Baltimore. Oliver Wolcott of Connecticut called Baltimore “the most dirty place I was ever in.” [5] In November 1785, citizens of Baltimore petitioned Governor William Paca to establish a health office that could manage prevalent diseases and other health concerns. Their efforts were unsuccessful and the urgent need for a health department became apparent only after citywide outbreaks of yellow fever and smallpox later in the century.

The first health officers were called “quarantine physicians” and were tasked with the prevention of the spread of yellow fever further into Baltimore. During the same year, many French fleeing the Haitian Revolution were seeking refuge in Baltimore. Dr. John Ross was delegated the role of maritime quarantine and was responsible for stopping yellow fever from reaching beyond the port. Dr. John Worthington managed land quarantine and patrolled traffic on the roads between Baltimore and Philadelphia, a port city that was experiencing a massive yellow fever outbreak. [5] [7]

In 1794, a Committee of Health was established along with a quarantine hospital at Hawkins Point. On January 1, 1797, Baltimore officially became incorporated as a city and the public health department was placed in the control of nine health commissioners. The Board of Health (which in 1900 was named the “Department of Health”) was established as a branch of the city government and the Committee of Health came to be known as the “Commissioners of Health.” [4]

The administration of the Health Department was founded on Ordinance No. 11 (April 7, 1797) and Ordinance No. 15 (April 11, 1797), which served as bases for all subsequent sanitary legislation. [8] By the end of this year, the primary responsibilities of the health department were to keep contagious diseases out and to maintain cleanliness of the city and inspect meat and fish brought into Baltimore. Quarantines against yellow fever continued for many years and debate ensued over whether yellow fever was actually contagious. In 1797, Dr. John Davidge of Baltimore published for the first time a report claiming that it was not contagious, and his theory was reaffirmed by Dr. David Reese after the 1819 yellow fever epidemic. [6] Quarantines against yellow fever were eventually dropped in the nineteenth century.

Records show that Baltimore City experienced major yellow fever outbreaks in 1794, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1800, 1808, and 1819. [9] After the 1819 yellow fever epidemic, the Health Department issued the Ordinance of 1821, which required that the Board of Health fence in affected areas, guard the fenced district with sentinels, and display a yellow flag on homes of infected people in future cases of yellow fever outbreak. [6]

Baltimore also faced numerous outbreaks of smallpox in the 18th and 19th centuries. Vaccination became mandatory in smallpox districts during the 1827 epidemic and physicians were required to report cases of smallpox in 1834. [6]

In the 1800s, the internal organization of the Health Department underwent major changes. The number of health commissioners was reduced to five in 1801, four in 1803, and two in 1808; the title of quarantine physician was abolished during the same year. In 1820, a consulting physician was appointed as an advisor to the mayor about city health issues. By 1900, the Board of Health was abolished and there was only one commissioner of health who held sole responsibility for the health department. [5]

The 20th century saw the expansion of the Health Department's internal organization and the establishment of public health administration as a branch of medical practice in Baltimore. [8] Previously, public health had been administered through volunteer service of private physicians. In the early part of the century, the BCHD took aggressive measures against cases of communicable diseases including pulmonary tuberculosis and typhoid. In 1909, the Sydenham Hospital, located on the grounds of the Bay View Asylum, was inaugurated for patients with scarlet fever and diphtheria. The installation of water chlorination in 1911, a sewer system in 1915, and water filtration in 1915 through the Bureau of Sanitation eradicated typhoid from Baltimore City. [8]

In 1908 and 1917, the BCHD published two milk ordinances that required the pasteurization of milk. In 1919, the Baltimore Bureau of Child Welfare was established, followed by the Bureau of Maternity Hygiene fifteen years later. [10] The Bureau of Child Welfare developed educational programs for expectant mothers, foundling and orphan asylums, and advances in infant hygiene that led to reductions in infant mortality. [8]

From 1853 to the 1930s, Health Department activities were largely conducted by a group of “health wardens”, qualified physicians assigned to one of the 24 political wards in the city. [11] Throughout the 20th century, the Health Department collaborated heavily with the medical community to develop solutions to diseases and basic health needs of its citizens.

The beginning of the 20th century also saw the establishment of a Bureau of Health Education. The BCHD distributed public health literature, organized exhibits, started the Baltimore Health News in 1918, and inaugurated a radio program called Keeping Well in 1932. [11]

During this century, Baltimore came to be divided into health districts, each with a staff of health officers and public health nurses. The Eastern Health District was established in 1932 and the boundaries of other districts, including the Druid and Northern districts, continued to evolve in subsequent decades. [11]

During the epidemic of HIV/AIDS in the United States, Baltimore City Health Department official Robert Mehl persuaded the city's mayor to form a committee to address food problems; the Baltimore-based charity Moveable Feast grew out of this initiative in 1990. [12] [13] [14] By 2010, the organization's region of service had expanded from merely Baltimore to include all of the Eastern Shore of Maryland. [15]

Role in 2015 Baltimore protests

In April 2015, protests occurred in Baltimore, following the death of Freddie Gray. The civil unrest resulted in the mobilization of thousands of police and Maryland National Guard troops and the declaration of a state of emergency in Baltimore. [16]

During the protests, the Baltimore City Health Department (BCHD) coordinated a response with hospitals, health care facilities, and community members. During the riots, BCHD provided updates for hospital emergency planners and led to the establishment of a citywide security plan for hospitals and healthcare facilities. Immediately following the violence, the Health Department mobilized an emergency shuttle, food pantry, and medical supply pantry at the Sandtown-Winchester Senior Center in the community where Freddie Gray lived. Staff members led twice-daily shuttle trips from West Baltimore to Walmart and Giant for residents whose local grocery stores and pharmacies were affected by looting. [17] [18]

After 13 pharmacies in the city closed due to looting and fire damage, BCHD partnered with the 3-1-1 hotline to provide residents with access to life-saving medications. Health Department staff provided prescription deliveries, transportation assistance, prescription transfers, door-to-door outreach, and disseminated information about open pharmacies in nearby areas. [19] BCHD also developed the Baltimore Healthcare Access List [20] and Pharmacies Operations List, [21] which provided up-to-date information about closures and hours of health care providers and pharmacies. [22] [23]

During the unrest, BCHD announced its commitment to address the mental health needs of Baltimore's residents. The implementation of the Baltimore Mental Health/Trauma Recovery Plan [24] led to the creation of a 24/7 crisis response line, free group counseling, and healing circles led by licensed mental health professionals. [25]

Today, the Health Department continues to work to provide trauma-informed care training to front-line city employees in order to improve the relationship between at-risk citizens and prevent traumatizing and re-traumatizing. Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake and Health Commissioner Leana Wen have stated their commitment to training every front-line city worker to becoming fully trauma-informed. [26] BCHD has also brought on board a team of Baltimore Corps Fellows whose priority is to engage the community, particularly the youth, to better address their health concerns. Additionally, BCHD hosts weekly B’More Health Talks, [27] virtual town hall meetings led by Commissioner Dr. Leana Wen that unite community leaders in discussions about relevant public health issues. In late 2015, BCHD launched an ambitious overdose prevention program that involves standing orders for every resident in the city. This program was featured by President Barack Obama in a panel discussion with Commissioner Wen. [28]

Programs

Celebration of More Than One Year with Zero Homicides in Safe Streets Cherry Hill post Safe Streets Cherry Hill.JPG
Celebration of More Than One Year with Zero Homicides in Safe Streets Cherry Hill post

The Baltimore City Health Department administers many programs under each of its nine divisions and bureaus. Some programs are:

Organization

The Baltimore City Health Department is led by the Commissioner of Health, appointed by the Baltimore City Mayor. The Commissioner is assisted in managing the Department by the Chief of Staff, Deputy Chief of Staff, and deputy commissioners. [47]

Under the Baltimore City Charter, 1996, [48] the Health Department is the city's legally designated public health authority. Responsibilities include:

Health commissioners

Prior to 1845, the Health Department was under the leadership of more than one health commissioner at a given time. In 1845, the Health Department was reorganized with one sole commissioner of health. In 1900, the Board of Health was abolished and the health commissioner was granted full responsibility for the Health Department. [5]

Bureaus and offices

The Baltimore City Health Department consists of nine operating divisions and bureaus. These include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quarantine</span> Epidemiological intervention to prevent disease transmission

A quarantine is a restriction on the movement of people, animals, and goods which is intended to prevent the spread of disease or pests. It is often used in connection to disease and illness, preventing the movement of those who may have been exposed to a communicable disease, yet do not have a confirmed medical diagnosis. It is distinct from medical isolation, in which those confirmed to be infected with a communicable disease are isolated from the healthy population.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">United States Public Health Service</span> Division of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health

The United States Public Health Service is a collection of agencies of the Department of Health and Human Services concerned with public health, containing nine out of the department's twelve operating divisions. The Assistant Secretary for Health oversees the PHS. The Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) is the federal uniformed service of the PHS, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States.

<i>Cordon sanitaire</i> (medicine) Quarantine of a geographic area

A cordon sanitaire is the restriction of movement of people into or out of a defined geographic area, such as a community, region, or country. The term originally denoted a barrier used to stop the spread of infectious diseases. The term is also often used metaphorically, in English, to refer to attempts to prevent the spread of an ideology deemed unwanted or dangerous, such as the containment policy adopted by George F. Kennan against the Soviet Union.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">William C. Gorgas</span> 22nd Surgeon General of the United States Army

William Crawford Gorgas KCMG was a United States Army physician and 22nd Surgeon General of the U.S. Army (1914–1918). He is best known for his work in Florida, Havana and at the Panama Canal in abating the transmission of yellow fever and malaria by controlling the mosquitoes that carry these diseases, for which he used the discoveries made by the Cuban doctor Carlos J. Finlay. At first, Finlay's strategy was greeted with considerable skepticism and opposition to such hygiene measures. However, the measures Gorgas put into practice as the head of the Panama Canal Zone Sanitation Commission saved thousands of lives and contributed to the success of the canal's construction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene</span> New York City government agency

The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene is the department of the government of New York City responsible for public health along with issuing birth certificates, dog licenses, and conducting restaurant inspection and enforcement. The New York City Board of Health is part of the department. Its regulations are compiled in title 24 of the New York City Rules. Since March 2022, the commissioner has been Ashwin Vasan.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Department of Health (Philippines)</span> Executive department of the Philippine governmcent

The Department of Health is the executive department of the government of the Philippines responsible for ensuring access to basic public health services by all Filipinos through the provision of quality health care, the regulation of all health services and products. It is the government's over-all technical authority on health. It has its headquarters at the San Lazaro Compound, along Rizal Avenue in Manila.

Jacob Casson Geiger was city director of public health in San Francisco and Oakland, California, and the president of the San Francisco Medical Society in 1935.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Massachusetts Department of Public Health</span>

The Massachusetts Department of Public Health is a governmental agency of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts with various responsibilities related to public health within that state. It is headquartered in Boston and headed by Commissioner Robbie Goldstein, MD, PhD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tom Frieden</span> American physician

Thomas R. Frieden is an American infectious disease and public health physician. He serves as president and CEO of Resolve to Save Lives, a $225 million, five-year initiative to prevent epidemics and cardiovascular disease.

The New York State Department of Health is the department of the New York state government responsible for public health. Its regulations are compiled in title 10 of the New York Codes, Rules and Regulations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas de Estudios de la Salud</span> Public medical research institution of Panama

The Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas de Estudios de la Salud is a medical research institution that has been dedicated for more than 80 years on investigating diseases in the tropics and preventive medicine. Established in 1921, GMI had its building inaugurated in Panama City in 1928. It was administered by the United States until 1990. Since 1990, it has been a part of the Ministry of Health of the Government of Panama.

The Johns Hopkins Center for Communication Programs (CCP) was founded over 30 years ago by Phyllis Tilson Piotrow as a part the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health's department of Health, Behavior, and Society and is located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leana Wen</span> Physician, author and public health advocate

Leana Sheryle Wen is an American physician, author, professor, speaker, consultant, newspaper columnist and television commentator. She is former health commissioner for the city of Baltimore and former president of Planned Parenthood. She has written two books based on her experiences as a medical professional.

The Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO) represents the public health agencies of all 50 states in the United States, the District of Columbia, the five U.S. territories, and the three freely associated states. ASTHO members, the chief health officials in each of these jurisdictions, formulate and influence public health policy and work to protect and promote good health in the populations they serve.

Henry Frieze Vaughan was an American epidemiologist with a strong discipline in environmental health, an academic professor, and an administrator. Among the positions he held, he was the Health Commissioner for the City of Detroit (1919–1941), editor for “American Journal of Public Health” (1922–1924), President of American Public Health in 1925, trustee of the W. K. Kellogg Foundation (1933–1978), President of Council at the Michigan Department of Council (1939–1960), founder and Dean of the University of Michigan School of Public Health (1941–1960), and the co-founder and first president of the National Sanitation Foundation (1944–1966). Vaughan was born in Michigan and stayed in Michigan for most of his life contributing to the development and innovation of medical and health services in Michigan.

The Detroit Health Department has provided public health services, and has partnered with neighborhoods and community stakeholders, for over 100 years. The department was able to grow from its focus on communicable diseases to one that had over 40 programs and services at one point. When budgets began to deteriorate, many of those programs and services ended. With the city on the verge of bankruptcy, most of the department's remaining services were contracted out to a private agency, the Institute for Population Health (IPH). However, upon successful progress post-bankruptcy the City of Detroit was able to take control of many of the services that were transitioned to IPH in 2014 and 2015. In 2015, Mayor Mike Duggan hired Dr Abdul El-Sayed to run the department, and he stayed in that role for a little over a year before leaving to run for Governor of Michigan. In February 2017, Dr. Joneigh Khaldun, a practicing emergency physician and former Chief Medical Officer of the Baltimore City Health Department, was appointed to lead the department.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Division of Global Migration Health</span> U.S. government agency responsible for U.S. Quarantine Stations and issuing quarantine orders

The Division of Global Migration Health (DGMH), formerly the Division of Global Migration and Quarantine is the part of the U.S. government responsible for U.S. Quarantine Stations and issuing quarantine orders. It is part of the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases within the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Edyth Schoenrich was a doctor and professor at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Henry Rose Carter</span> American epidemiologist (1852–1925)

Henry Rose Carter was an American physician, epidemiologist, and public health official who served as assistant surgeon general of the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. His research and protocols were critical in understanding and preventing the transmission of both malaria and yellow fever.

Letitia Dzirasa is an American pediatrician who was the interim deputy mayor of Baltimore for equity, health, and human services from 2023 to 2024. She served as the commissioner of the Baltimore City Health Department from 2019 to 2023.

References

  1. 1 2 "About The Baltimore City Health Department". Baltimore City Health Department. April 25, 2014.
  2. "Health Commissioner, Baltimore City". Baltimore City Health Department.
  3. "Baltimore names Dr. Letitia Dzirasa, a pediatrician, as new health commissioner". Baltimore Sun. February 20, 2019.
  4. 1 2 Fee, Elizabeth (January 1945). "Has Baltimore the Oldest Health Department?". American Journal of Public Health. 35 (1): 49–50. doi:10.2105/ajph.35.1.49. PMC   1625257 . PMID   18016106.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Beilenson, Peter L.; Lambropoulos, A. Soula (August 1993). "Baltimore City Health Department: 200 years of progress and partnership". Maryland Medical Journal. 42 (8): 729–733. PMID   8412533.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Mooney, Graham. "Life and death in Charm City Histories of public health in Baltimore, 1750 to the present: Infection and intervention: yellow fever and smallpox (PowerPoint presentation)". Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.
  7. Markel, H. (March–April 1995). "A Gate to the City: The Baltimore Quarantine Station, 1918-28". Public Health Reports. 110 (2): 218–19. PMC   1382106 . PMID   7631002.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Williams, Huntington (June 1976). "Baltimore City Department of Health, 1900-1925". Maryland State Medical Journal. 25 (6): 64–69. PMID   1271867.
  9. Woodward, Theodore E.; Beisel, William R.; Faulkner, Roy D. (October 1975). "Marylanders Defeat Philadelphia: Yellow Fever Updated". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association. 87: 69–101. PMC   2441371 . PMID   822563.
  10. Black, Grace; Bonner, Nira (August 1993). "Maternal and child health services in the Baltimore City Health Department, 1900–1992". Maryland Medical Journal. 42 (8): 775–8. PMID   8412540.
  11. 1 2 3 Mooney, Graham (2015). "Washington and Welch Talk About Race: Public Health, History, and the Politics of Exclusion". American Journal of Public Health. American Journal of Public Health 105(7). 105 (7): 1317–1328. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302636. PMC   4463373 . PMID   25973819.
  12. Fuller, Nicole (February 28, 2007). "Moveable Feast, which gives food to HIV/AIDS, terminally ill patients, might turn away clients". The Baltimore Sun . Archived from the original on April 17, 2016. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
  13. Hill, Retha (June 9, 1990). "Meals a Godsend To AIDS Patients;Md. Program Helps Ease Burden for Homebound". The Washington Post . Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
  14. "History of Moveable Feast". About Us. Moveable Feast. 2015. Archived from the original on September 18, 2015. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
  15. "Gay Pride events to return to University of Baltimore, June 17–18". US Fed News Service. May 27, 2010. Archived from the original on April 9, 2016. Retrieved October 26, 2015.
  16. Simpson, Ian; Strobel, Warren (April 28, 2015). "Thousands of police descend on Baltimore to enforce curfew after riots". Reuters.
  17. Marans, Daniel (May 13, 2015). "After Baltimore Unrest Closes Pharmacies, City Helps Residents Access Medication". Huffington Post.
  18. Gantz, Sarah. "The Baltimore health department is running a shuttle from West Baltimore to Giant, Walmart". Baltimore Business Journal.
  19. Silva, Daniella (May 6, 2015). "CVS Health to Rebuild Stores Burned in Baltimore Riots". NBC News.
  20. "Baltimore Heals: Baltimore Healthcare Access List". Baltimore City Health Department. April 30, 2015.
  21. "Baltimore Heals: Baltimore Pharmacies Operations List". Baltimore City Health Department. May 2015.
  22. "Prescription help available as damaged pharmacies remain closed".
  23. "Response, recover and rebuilding Baltimore".
  24. "Trauma & Mental Health Resources". Baltimore City Health Department. April 28, 2015.
  25. Wen, Leana S.; Sharfstein, Joshua M. (June 23–30, 2015). "Unrest in Baltimore: The Role of Public Health". The Journal of the American Medical Association. 313 (24): 2425–2426. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.5561. PMID   25950149.
  26. "Trauma-Informed Care". Baltimore City Health Department. July 6, 2015.
  27. "B'More Health Talks". Baltimore City Health Department. July 2, 2015.
  28. Nadia Kounang (March 29, 2016). "Obama: Addiction is a preventable disease". CNN. Retrieved June 12, 2016.
  29. B’More for Healthy Babies
  30. "About BHB". B'more for Healthy Babies.
  31. "Safe Streets" . Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  32. "Safe Streets". The Baltimore Sun.
  33. "Substance Abuse". July 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  34. "Staying Alive Drug Overdose Prevention and Response Plan". Baltimore City Health Department. July 2014.
  35. "Dating Matters". May 20, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  36. "Dating Matters® Initiative". February 3, 2021.
  37. "Lead Poisoning". May 20, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  38. "Lead". Baltimore City Health Department. July 8, 2014.
  39. "Community Risk Reduction". July 10, 2014. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  40. "Baltimore City Needle Exchange Program". Baltimore City Health Department. July 10, 2014.
  41. Operation Safe Kids Archived February 14, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  42. "Operation Safe Kids". NACCHO.
  43. "Operation Safe Kids". Baltimore City Health Department. Archived from the original on August 5, 2015.
  44. "Don't Die".
  45. "Home - Bmore In Control". Archived from the original on June 30, 2019. Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  46. "Baltimarket - Access to healthy and affordable foods in Baltimore" . Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  47. "Executive Branch".
  48. "Baltimore City Charter". baltimorecity.gov. City of Baltimore.
  49. 1 2 Opilo, Emily (July 29, 2024). "Baltimore health commissioner terminated after 7 months on the job". Baltimore Sun. Retrieved July 30, 2024.
  50. "Dr. Letitia Dzirasa". Maryland Daily Record. March 31, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2024.
  51. "RELEASE: Mayor Rawlings-Blake Appoints Dr. Leana S. Wen as Commissioner of the Baltimore City Health Department" . Retrieved September 18, 2016.
  52. Reutter, Mark. "Baltimore health commissioner announces her resignation". Baltimore Brew.
  53. "Joshua Sharfstein". Center for American Progress.
  54. "Peter Beilenson Biography". Johns Hopkins Krieger School of Arts & Sciences. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
  55. "Dr. Maxie T. Collier, ex-city health commissioner". The Baltimore Sun.
  56. LoLordo A. Guarnieri to quit health department for BG&E post. The Sun. Jun 24 1987:1
  57. "Dr. John B. Dehoff". The Baltimore Sun.
  58. One Hundred and Fifty-First Annual Report of the Department of Health. 1965. p. 3.
  59. Fee, Elizabeth (June 2011). "George Huntington Williams (1892–1992): Baltimore's Commissioner of Health". American Journal of Public Health. 101 (6): 1049. doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.190835. PMC   3093278 . PMID   21493936.
  60. Hiscock, Ira V.; Jones, C. Hampson (November 1927). "The Preparation of Annual Health Reports". American Journal of Public Health. 17 (11): 1152–1155. doi:10.2105/ajph.17.11.1152. PMC   1321963 . PMID   18012326.
  61. "Forms Used in Administration". Maternity Care and the Welfare of Young Children in a Homesteading County in Montana. 34–42: 115. 1919.
  62. Quinan, John Russel, p.163, Medical Annals of Baltimore from 1608 to 1880, Baltimore (1884)
  63. Commission of Health Weekly Letters to the Mayor. 1820–1825.
  64. Commissioner of Health of Baltimore, 1953 (1815–1849). Baltimore City Health Department: The First Thirty-five Annual Reports, 1815-1849. Baltimore (Md.). Board of Health.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  65. "What we do". Baltimore City Health Department. May 30, 2014.

Further reading

Official website