Cardamom mosaic virus

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Cardamom mosaic virus
Virus classification Red Pencil Icon.png
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Pisuviricota
Class: Stelpaviricetes
Order: Patatavirales
Family: Potyviridae
Genus: Macluravirus
Species:
Cardamom mosaic virus
Synonyms

Katte disease

The cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV) is a mosaic virus that affects the production of green cardamom (E. cardamomum). It is a member of the genus Macluravirus (recognized under the family Potyviridae by ICTV in 1988), [1] and is transmitted through aphids (P.caladii) and infected rhizomes, the former in a non-persistent manner.

Contents

Host and symptoms

Green cardamom is one of the world's very ancient spices. Known as the “queen of spices”, because of their aroma and flavor, it is one of the most exotic and highly priced spices. It is the world's third most expensive spice after vanilla and saffron. Although India is the top producer of the spice, producing 31.1% of the world's cardamom followed by Guatemala and Nepal, Guatemala is the top exporter (exporting 43.6% of the world's cardamom) followed by Nepal and India. [2]

Cardamom suffers from several oomycetous, fungal, viral, nematode-induced diseases and pests that affect the productivity and the industry as a whole.[ citation needed ] Among them, "mosaic disease" or "katte disease" is one of the major diseases in cardamom that has resulted in a reduction in its production.[ citation needed ]

The virus was reported at first in southern India in the 1900s by Mollison and it has also highly affected Guatemala and Sri Lanka. [3] The disease is widely distributed among cardamom-cultivating regions. The cardamom production industry in some parts of Guatemala started showing symptoms of the disease, after which all nearby plantations of the southern-pacific coastal region (producing 60% of the total cardamom) were infected with the disease. [4] Recent surveys conducted in cardamom-producing areas of India for CdMV have revealed its prevalence in most of the cardamom plantations in Karnataka. [5] It has been reported that based on the time and stage of infection, there is a variation in yield loss due to CdMV. It has been reported that early infection at a young stage leads to almost 100%, whereas higher crop loss ranges from 38 to 68.7% from first to the third year for monocultured cardamom, leading to declining of the infected plants occurring within 3 to 5 years (the economic cycle of a healthy cardamom plant starts from the third year and can last up to 8–10 years). [6] [3] Chemical management practices, breeding for resistance and cross-protection show limited success against CdMV. Early detection of the virus, use of virus-free seedlings, and eradication of the vector and infected clumps are a few methods of CdMV disease management.[ citation needed ]

Causal agent and its genome characterization

Virions of the genus Macluravirus are non-enveloped, flexuous, and filamentous, measuring 650-660 nm lengthwise with a 10-12 nm diameter and pinwheel-type inclusion bodies relating it to the family of potyviruses.[ citation needed ] The CdMV genomes are single-stranded linear positive-sense RNA as reported by Jacob and Usha (2001). [1] As a result of amplification, cloning, sequencing and gene expression, it can be reported that CdMV contains ~8.5kb of genomes, presence coding regions for partial Cytoplasmic Inclusion, CdMV encoded proteins: complete Nuclear Inclusion b (NIb) gene in the genome which is the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), Nuclear Inclusion a (NIa) Protease (Nia 1 protease) and a complete 6K2 genome-linked viral protein. The coat protein of potyvirus is a suitable carrier to display the epitopes of the pathogens. The sequencing of coat proteins and 3’ UTR regions of different isolated strains of CdMV from different cardamom-growing geographical regions in India revealed that there are three different CdMV strains causing disease on the basis of severity of symptoms on young and matured leaves, transmission efficiency, effect on plant height and leaf area. [7] The strains varied in the N-terminal region of coat protein in their sequence.[ citation needed ]

Host range

There is a long association between the infection of Macluravirus and spice crops. They have a narrow host range infecting families Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Iridaceae, Dioscoreaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Moraceae, Aizoaceae, Ranunculaceae and Zingiberaceae. For CdMV, the natural hosts are small cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) along with their other hosts that belong to the family Zingiberaceae-Amomum connecarpum, A. invollucraltum, A. microstephanum, A. muricatum, A. pterocarpum, A. subulatum, Alpinia neutans, Alpinia mutica, Curcuma neilgherrensis, Hedychium flavescens, Zingiber cernuum, and Maranta arundinacea of family Marantaceae [8]

Symptoms

The expression of symptoms associated with the disease varies according to the varieties grown, growing region and strain variations; these include mild to severe mosaic, overall chlorosis, chlorotic flecks and necrotic and ring spots. The virus infection is systemic in nature that gradually spreads to all tillers in a clump and can infect plants of all stages.

The first visible symptom of the disease is seen on the youngest leaves of the affected tiller that appear as spindle shaped slender chlorotic flecks (2–5 mm in length). The flecks later develop into pale green discontinuous stripes that run parallel to the vein form the midrib to leaf margin. The mosaic symptoms are masked as the leaves mature. The next emerging leaves of the infected plant will show the characteristic mosaic symptoms over the entire lamina. The mosaic type mottling is often seen on the leaf sheaths and young shoots. The mature leaves formed before infection do not develop symptoms. As the disease advances, the size of the leaves eventually creating a negative effect in the plant's vigor and causing stunting of the clump with a few slender tillers and shorter panicles. The plants infected by mosaic or Katte can survive for many years and act as the source of inoculum. [7] [9]

Virus Transmission and Spread

The virus is transmitted through the aphid vector Pentalonia caladii (formerly P. nigronervosa f. caladii). They are also transmitted by infected rhizomes, infected clones, seedlings raised in the vicinity of infected plantations, volunteer plants, and a few of the infected zingiberacae. [6] [10] [11] Along with P. caladii, various other species of aphid have been reported to transmit the virus. [8] [12] The virus can be transmitted by both the nymphal and the adult stages, but efficiency increases with age of the vector; alate and apterous form are the most efficient. [12]

In plantations, aphids are prevalent throughout the year, although a decline occurs during monsoon season. The migrating population was found to be the maximum during January–February, while the populations of alate vectors were found higher during November to May.[ citation needed ] The primary spread in the plantation occurs due to active viruliferous alate forms of the vector at random with a radius of 400–600 m from the virus source. [3] The secondary spread is internal with low rate of spread and as the apterate adults become active, there comes a centrifugal influx of the primary source. The secondary spread was found to be gradient within 40m radius from the initial source in India while in Guatemala, the rate of disease spread was very fast (83% within 6 months of plantation). [8]

In the field, CdMV incubated from 20 to 114 days at different months; their expression is influenced by growth of the plants. When the plants are in active phase of growth (May–November) the symptoms start expressing and develop on young seedlings (3-4 leaves stage) within 15–20 days of incubation, while, the expression is slowed due to prolonged incubation period (December – March) and it expressed in the adults only after 30–40 days of incubation during active times (90–120 days during winter months). [11] Although the aphid population increased during November to May in the field and decreased during the monsoon, they were found throughout the year.[ citation needed ]

Control / management

For successful management of any disease, an integrated disease management strategy needs to be developed. The following are some disease management strategies for CdMV:

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cardamom</span> Group of plants providing cardamom

Cardamom, sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indonesia. They are recognized by their small seed pods: triangular in cross-section and spindle-shaped, with a thin, papery outer shell and small, black seeds; Elettaria pods are light green and smaller, while Amomum pods are larger and dark brown.

<i>Potato leafroll virus</i> Species of virus

Potato leafroll virus (PLRV) is a member of the genus Polerovirus and family Solemoviridae. The phloem limited positive sense RNA virus infects potatoes and other members of the family Solanaceae. PLRV was first described by Quanjer et al. in 1916. PLRV is transmitted by aphids, primarily the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. PLRV is one of the most important potato viruses worldwide but particularly devastating in countries with limited resources and management. It can be responsible for individual plant yield losses of over 50%. One estimate suggests that PLRV is responsible for an annual global yield loss of 20 million tons. Symptoms include chlorosis, necrosis and leaf curling.

Citrus tristeza virus (CTV) is a viral species of the genus Closterovirus that causes the most economically damaging disease to its namesake plant genus, Citrus. The disease has led to the death of millions of Citrus trees all over the world and has rendered millions of others useless for production. Farmers in Brazil and other South American countries gave it the name "tristeza", meaning sadness in Portuguese and Spanish, referring to the devastation produced by the disease in the 1930s. The virus is transmitted most efficiently by the brown citrus aphid.

<i>Papaya ringspot virus</i> Species of virus

Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) is a pathogenic plant virus in the genus Potyvirus and the virus family Potyviridae which primarily infects the papaya tree.

<i>Banana bunchy top virus</i> Species of virus

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Nanoviridae known for infecting banana plants and other crops. It is aphid transmitted.

<i>Cacao swollen shoot virus</i> Species of virus

Cacao swollen shoot virus (CSSV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Caulimoviridae that primarily infects cacao trees. It decreases cacao yield within the first year of infection, and usually kills the tree within a few years. Symptoms vary by strain, but leaf discoloration, stem/root swelling, and die-back generally occur. The virus is transmitted from tree to tree by mealybug vectors. It was first discovered in Ghana in 1936, and is currently endemic in Togo, Ghana and Nigeria. Over 200 million trees have already been claimed by this disease, which has prompted Ghana to launch the most ambitious and costly eradication effort of any country in the world against a viral plant disease.

<i>Cucumber mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is a plant pathogenic virus in the family Bromoviridae. This virus has a worldwide distribution and a very wide host range, having the reputation of the widest host range of any known plant virus. It can be transmitted from plant to plant both mechanically by sap and by aphids in a stylet-borne fashion. It can also be transmitted in seeds and by the parasitic weeds, Cuscuta sp. (dodder).

Groundnut rosette virus (GRV) is a peanut pathogenic virus found in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is transmitted between plants by insect vectors such as the groundnut aphid.

Indian cassava mosaic virus(ICMV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Geminiviridae. It affects cassava in India and certain other countries. It is considered to be an invasive species.

<i>Maize dwarf mosaic virus</i> Species of plant pathogenic virus

Maize dwarf mosaic virus (MDMV) is a pathogenic plant virus of the family Potyviridae. Depending on the corn plant’s growth stage, the virus can have severe implications to the corn plant’s development which can also result in economic consequences to the producer of the crop.

Papaya mosaic virus (PapMV) is a plant pathogenic virus in the genus Potexvirus and the family Alphaflexiviridae. PapMV is a filamentous, flexuous rod, 530 nm in length.

<i>Wheat streak mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Potyviridae that infects plants in the family Poaceae, especially wheat ; it is globally distributed and vectored by the wheat curl mite, particularly in regions where wheat is widely grown. First described in Nebraska in 1922, stunted growth and the eponymous “streaks” of yellowed, non-uniform discoloration are characteristic of WSMV infection. As it has been known to cause 100% crop mortality, WSMV is a subject of ongoing scientific research.

<i>Soybean mosaic virus</i> Plant disease

Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is a member of the plant virus genus Potyvirus. It infects mainly plants belonging to the family Fabaceae but has also been found infecting other economically important crops. SMV is the cause of soybean mosaic disease that occurs in all the soybean productions areas of the world. Soybean is one of the most important sources of edible oil and proteins and pathogenic infections are responsible for annual yield losses of about $4 billion in the United States. Among these pathogens, SMV is the most important and prevalent viral pathogen in soybean production worldwide. It causes yield reductions of about 8% to 35% but losses as high as 94% have been reported.

<i>Strawberry vein banding virus</i> Species of virus

Strawberry vein banding virus (SVBV) is a plant pathogenic virus and a member of the family Caulimoviridae.

<i>Watermelon mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Watermelon mosaic virus (WMV) also known as Marrow mosaic virus, Melon mosaic virus, and until recently Watermelon mosaic virus type 2 (WMV-2), is a plant pathogenic virus that causes viral infection in many different plants. The virus itself is referred to as Watermelon Mosaic Virus II or WMV-2 and is an isolate of the U.S. WMV-2 is a ssRNA positive strand virus that is part of the Potyviridae or Potyvirus clade. Like all RNA viruses, it contains a protein capsid which protects the inner viral RNA. First described on squash in Florida, WMV arose from a unique recombination of genetic material contributed by Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) and Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV) along with Peanut Stripe virus (PSV).

<i>Blueberry shoestring virus</i> Species of virus

Blueberry shoestring virus (BBSSV) is a disease-causing virus that is commonly transmitted by the aphid vector, Illinoia pepperi. The blueberry shoestring virus disease is very prominent in highbush and lowbush blueberry plants in the northeastern and upper Midwest of the United States. Symptoms can vary significantly depending on the environment, but the most common disease symptoms are reddish streaking on young stems, reduced vigor and strap-shaped leaves. The blueberry shoestring virus disease can be managed by eliminating the aphid vector through the use of biological, chemical or cultural controls. In severe cases, the disease leads to an extensive loss of yield and marketable fruit.

<i>Squash mosaic virus</i> Species of virus

Squash mosaic virus (SqMV) is a mosaic virus disease common in squash plants and other plants, including melons, of the family Cucurbitaceae. It occurs worldwide. It is transmitted primarily by beetles, including the leaf beetle, spotted cucumber beetle, and 28-spotted ladybird beetle, as well as some other beetles. Plants are infected by the saliva expelled by the beetles as they feed upon the plant. The beetles acquire the virus by feeding upon an infected plant and can retain the virus in their bodies for up to 20 days. Unlike some other mosaic viruses that infect squashes, SqMV is not spread by aphids. In melons it can be spread by seeds. The results are dark green mosaic, blistering, vein clearing, yellowing of leaves, and hardening. Symptoms include "pronounced chlorotic mottle, green veinbanding, and distortion of leaves". Fruits of infected plants are also affected, becoming mottled and misshaped. There are two strains of this virus: strain 1 has a greater effect on melons than squash while the opposite is true of strain 2.

Cocoa necrosis virus (CoNV) is a plant pathogenic virus of the genus nepovirus that infects Theobroma cacao en natura causing cacao necrosis disease. CoNV is considered synonymous with Strain S of cacao swollen shoot virus. Unlike Cacao swollen shoot virus, it is not transmitted by mealybugs nor vectored by aphids, beetles, or leafhoppers that also commonly infest cacao. It is serologically, distantly related to Tomato black ring virus and very distantly related to Grapevine chrome mosaic virus.

Carrot virus Y (CarVY) is a (+)ss-RNA virus that affects crops of the carrot family (Apiaceae), such as carrots, anise, chervil, coriander, cumin, dill and parsnip. Carrots are the only known crop to be infected in the field. Infection by the virus leads to deformed roots and discolored or mottled leaves. The virus is spread through insect vectors, and is currently only found in Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral diseases of potato</span>

Viral diseases of potato are a group of diseases caused by different types of viruses that affect potato crops worldwide and, although they do not affect human or animal health since they are viruses that only infect vegetables, they are a source of great economic losses annually. About 28 viruses have been reported infecting potato crops. However, potato virus X (PVX), potato virus Y (PVY), and potato leafroll virus (PLRV) are the most important viruses worldwide. Some others are of economic importance only in some regions. Such is the case of potato virus M (PVM) in some Asian and European countries.

References

  1. 1 2 Jacob, Thomas; Usha, R. (2001-08-01). "3′-Terminal Sequence analysis of the RNA Genome of the Indian Isolate of Cardamom Mosaic Virus: A New Member of Genus macluravirus of potyviridae". Virus Genes. 23 (1): 81–88. doi:10.1023/A:1011191614839. ISSN   1572-994X. PMID   11556406. S2CID   37527073.
  2. ↑ "Cardamom global export and top exporting countries". Tridge. Retrieved 2019-11-23.
  3. 1 2 3 Venugopal, M.N. (1995). "Viral diseases of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) and their management". J Spices Aromat Crops. 4 (1): 32–39.
  4. ↑ Gonsalves, D. (1986). "Purification and Some Properties of a Virus Associated with Cardamom Mosaic, a New Member of the Potyvirus Group". Plant Disease. 70 (1): 65. doi:10.1094/pd-70-65. ISSN   0191-2917.
  5. ↑ Schultes, Richard Evans (July 1983). "Spices". Economic Botany. 37 (3): 330. doi:10.1007/bf02858889. ISSN   0013-0001.
  6. 1 2 Varma, P.M. (1962). "Control of Katte or mosaic disease of cardamom in North Kanara". Arecanut J. 13: 79–88.
  7. 1 2 Biju, C.N.; Bhat, A.I. (2012). Viral Diseases of Cardamom.
  8. 1 2 3 Vijayanandraj, S.; Mandal, Bikash; Jebasingh, T.; Jeeva, M. L.; Makeshkumar, T.; Maheshwari, Yogita (2017), "Characterisation of the Macluraviruses Occurring in India", A Century of Plant Virology in India, Springer Singapore, pp. 307–326, doi:10.1007/978-981-10-5672-7_13, ISBN   978-981-10-5671-0
  9. ↑ Venugopal, M. N. (2002). Viral diseases of cardamom. In Cardamom. CRC Press. pp. 159–175.
  10. ↑ Uppal, B. N.; Verma, P. M.; Capoor, S. P. (1945). "A mosaic disease of cardamom". Current Science. 14 (8): 208–209.
  11. 1 2 Naidu, R., & Venugopal, M. N. (2007). Epidemiology of'Katte'virus disease of small cardamom-II: Foci of primary disease entry, patterns and gradients of disease entry and spread.
  12. 1 2 Varma, P. M; Capoor, S. P. (1958). "Mosaic disease of cardamom and its transmission by the banana aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq". Indian J Agric Sci. 28: 97–108.
  13. ↑ Mathew, M. J.; Saju, K. A.; Venugopal, M. N. (1998). "Efficacy of entomogenous fungi on biological suppression of Pentalonia nigronervosa f. caladii Van der Goot of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton)". Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops. 7 (1): 43–46.
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