Cloth face mask

Last updated

Cloth face mask
Clothfacemask101.jpeg
A cloth face mask made out of 2-ply construction with layers of 85% polyester and 15% cotton fabric
Other namesFabric mask

A cloth face mask is a mask made of common textiles, usually cotton, worn over the mouth and nose. When more effective masks are not available, and when physical distancing is impossible, cloth face masks are recommended by public health agencies for disease "source control" in epidemic situations to protect others from virus laden droplets in infected mask wearers' breath, coughs, and sneezes. Because they are less effective than N95 masks, surgical masks, or physical distancing in protecting the wearer against viruses, they are not considered to be personal protective equipment by public health agencies. They are used by the general public in household and community settings as protection against both infectious diseases and particulate air pollution.

Contents

Cloth face masks were routinely used by healthcare workers starting from the late 19th century until the mid 20th century. In the 1960s they fell out of use in the developed world in favor of disposable surgical masks with an electret (electrically charged) filter material, but cloth masks persisted in developing countries. During the COVID-19 pandemic, their use in developed countries was revived due to shortages, as well as for environmental concerns and practicality. Launderable cloth electret filters were also being developed. [1]

Usage

Guidance from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on using and making cloth masks during the COVID-19 pandemic Use of Cloth Face Coverings to Help Slow the Spread of COVID-19.pdf
Guidance from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention on using and making cloth masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, reusable cloth face masks were predominantly used by healthcare workers in developing countries and were especially prominent in Asia. Cloth face masks contrast with surgical masks and respirators such as N95 masks, which are made of nonwoven fabric formed through a melt blowing process, and are regulated for their effectiveness based upon efficiency of minimum particle size filtered and/or maximum penetrating particle (MPP) size, along with other criteria such as outer splash/spray protection, inner splash/spray absorption, contaminant accumulation and shedding, air flow, and inflammability. [3] Like surgical masks, and unlike respirators, cloth face masks do not provide a seal around the face, and prior to the 2019 COVID-19 outbreak were generally not authorized by institutions for protection from sub-HEPA particle size (less than 0.3 um) Influenza Like Illness (ILI). [4]

In healthcare settings, they are used on sick patients as source control to reduce disease transmission through respiratory droplets, and by healthcare workers when surgical masks and respirators are unavailable. Cloth face masks are only recommended for use by healthcare workers as a last resort if supplies of surgical masks and respirators are exhausted. [4] They are also used by the general public in household and community settings as perceived protection against both infectious diseases and particulate air pollution and to contain the wearer's exhaled virus laden droplets. [4] [5]

Several types of cloth face masks are available commercially, especially in Asia. [5] Homemade masks can also be improvised using bandanas, [2] T-shirts, [2] [3] handkerchiefs, [3] scarves, [3] or towels. [6] But depending on the situation, reusable cloth masks with incorporated filters can block particles nearly as well as medical-grade masks can, as long as they fit securely. [7]

Recommendations

Infographic from the World Health Organization showing the do's and don'ts of wearing a fabric mask to prevent the spread of COVID-19 How to wear a non-medical fabric mask safely - Do's & Don'ts.png
Infographic from the World Health Organization showing the do's and don'ts of wearing a fabric mask to prevent the spread of COVID-19
Two French cloth masks certified by AFNOR. The white mask is made of polypropylene and the black one is made of cotton. Deux masques grand public.jpg
Two French cloth masks certified by AFNOR. The white mask is made of polypropylene and the black one is made of cotton.

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that cloth face masks should be worn in public where social distancing is not possible to help stop the spread of coronavirus. It notes that wearing a cloth face mask is just one of a range of tools that can be used to reduce the risk of transmission. [8] The US Center for Disease Control, along with Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, The Mayo Clinic, and Cleveland Clinic all concur with this recommendation. [9] [10] [11] [12] The World Health Organization also recommended that those aged over 60 years old or with underlying health risks require more protection and should wear medical masks in areas where there is community transmission. [8]

The World Health Organization recommends using masks with at least three layers of different materials. Two spunbond polypropylene layers are also believed to offer adequate filtration and breathability. [13] When producing cloth face masks, two parameters should be considered: filtration efficiency of the material and breathability. The filter quality factor known as "Q" is commonly used as an integrated filter quality indicator. It is a function of filtration efficiency and breathability, with higher values indicating better performance. Experts recommend Q-factor of three or higher. [13]

A peer-reviewed summary [14] of the filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks concluded that, pending further research, evidence is strongest for 2 to 4 layers of plain weave cotton or flannel, at least 100 thread count. A plain-language summary of this review is available.

Comparison of materials for fabric masks [13]
Material (source)StructureInitial
Filtration
Efficiency (%)		Initial
Pressure
drop (Pa)		Filter
quality
factor, Q
(kPa−1)
Polypropylene (interfacing material) spunbond 61.616.9
Cotton (sweater)knit26177.6
Cotton (T-shirt)knit2114.57.4
Polyester (toddler wrap)knit1712.36.8
Cotton (T-shirt)woven54.55.4
Cellulose (tissue paper)bonded20195.1
Cellulose (paper towel)bonded10114.3
Silk (napkin)woven47.32.8
Cotton (handkerchief)woven1.19.80.48
Cotton, gauze woven0.76.50.47
Nylon (exercise pants)woven232440.4

Effectiveness

Cloth face masks can be used for source control to reduce disease transmission arising from the wearer's respiratory droplets, but are not considered personal protective equipment for the wearer [15] [16] [17] as they typically have very low filter efficiency. [18] [19] There are no standards or regulation for self-made cloth face masks. [19]

As of 2015, there had been no randomized clinical trials or guidance on the use of reusable cloth face masks. [4] [6] Most research had been performed in the early 20th century, before disposable surgical masks became prevalent. One 2010 study found that 40–90% of particles in the 20–1000 nm range penetrated a cloth mask and other fabric materials. [18] The performance of cloth face masks varies greatly with the shape, fit, and type of fabric, [5] as well as the fabric fineness and number of layers. [6] As of 2006, no cloth face masks had been cleared by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use as surgical masks. [3] A Vietnamese study of healthcare workers compared influenza-like illness outcome among those wearing cloth masks versus medical masks. [20] They concluded that cloth masks were ineffective at preventing transmission in high-risk clinical settings. Although discouraged in clinical settings, cloth masks may still serve a useful role in reducing disease transmission in public settings according to a systematic review. [21]

The primary role of masks worn by the general public is to "stop those who are already infected broadcasting the virus into the air around them." [22] This is of particular importance with the COVID-19 pandemic, as silent transmission seems to be a key feature of its rapid spread. For example, of the people on board the Diamond Princess cruise ship, 634 people were found to be infected—52% had no symptoms at the time of testing, including 18% who never developed symptoms. [23] It is important to note that mask wearers are more likely to engage in other hygiene measures such as hand washing and social distancing. Best practice is to implement multiple prevention techniques to reduce risk, as characterized by the Swiss cheese model. [24]

Compared with bacteria recovery from unmasked volunteers, a mask made of muslin and flannel reduced bacteria recovered on agar sedimentation plates by 99%, total airborne microorganisms by 99%, and bacteria recovered from aerosols (<4 µm) by 88% to 99%. [25] In 1975, 4 medical masks and 1 commercially produced reusable mask made of 4 layers of cotton muslin were compared. Filtration efficiency, assessed by bacterial counts, was 96% to 99% for the medical masks and 99% for the cloth mask; for aerosols (<3.3 µm), it was 72% to 89% and 89%, respectively. [26]

An experiment carried out in 2013 by Public Health England, that country's health-protection agency, found that a commercially made surgical mask filtered 90% of virus particles from the air coughed out by participants, a vacuum cleaner bag filtered out 86%, a tea towel blocked 72% and a cotton t-shirt 51%—though fitting any DIY mask properly and ensuring a good seal around the mouth and nose is crucial. [27] [22] The use of common fabrics in making face masks has been tested. [28] [29] [30] [31] Filter efficiency can be improved with multiple layers, high weave density, and a mix of different types of fabrics. Cotton is the most commonly used material, and filter efficiencies can reach >80% for particles <300 nm with fabric combinations such as cotton-silk, cotton-chiffon, or cotton-flannel. [31] The most protective cloth masks need at least three layers with a hydrophilic inner layer (e.g. cotton) to absorb moisture from the wearer's breathing and hydrophobic outer layers (e.g. polyester). [13] Masks should be cleaned after each use. They can either be laundered or hand-washed in soapy hot water and dried with high heat. [32]

History

19180927 Gauze Mask to Halt Spread of Plague (Spanish flu) - The Washington Times.jpg
In 1918, the Red Cross recommended two-layer gauze masks. [33]
Tram operator refuses man without mask detail, from- 165-WW-269B-11-trolley-l (cropped).jpg
During the 1918 flu pandemic, a streetcar conductor in Seattle refuses a person who attempts to board without wearing a mask.

In Roman times, Pliny the Elder recommended that miners use animal bladders to protect against inhaling lead oxides. Some followers of Jainism, which originated in India around 500 B.C.E, wear cloth masks to avoid accidentally inhaling insects as part of practicing ahimsa. [34] [35] [36] In the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci advised the use of a wet woven cloth to protect against toxic agents[ which? ] of chemical warfare. [37] In the early modern period, the plague-doctor costume included a beaked face-mask worn to protect the wearer from infectious "miasma".

Conventional cowboy attire in the American West often included a bandanna, which could protect the face from blown dust and also potentially doubled as a means of obscuring identity. [38]

In 1890 William Stewart Halsted pioneered the use of rubber gloves and surgical face masks, although some European surgeons such as Paul Berger and Jan Mikulicz-Radecki had worn cotton gloves and masks earlier. These masks became commonplace after World War I and the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918. [39] [40] Cloth face masks were promoted by Wu Lien-teh in the 1910–11 Manchurian pneumonic plague outbreak, although Western medics doubted their efficacy in preventing the spread of disease. [41]

Cloth masks were largely supplanted by modern surgical masks made of nonwoven fabric in the 1960s, [3] [6] although their use continued in developing countries. [4] They were used in Asia during the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, and in West Africa during the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic. [4] Compared with bacteria recovery from unmasked volunteers, a mask made of muslin and flannel reduced bacteria recovered on agar sedimentation plates by 99%, total airborne microorganisms by 99%, and bacteria recovered from aerosols (<4 µm) by 88% to 99%. [25] In 1975, 4 medical masks and 1 commercially produced reusable mask made of 4 layers of cotton muslin were compared. Filtration efficiency, assessed by bacterial counts, was 96% to 99% for the medical masks and 99% for the cloth mask; for aerosols (<3.3 µm), it was 72% to 89% and 89%, respectively. [26]

COVID-19 pandemic

Rhode Island National Guardsmen sew face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic, April 6, 2020. Rhode Island National Guard.jpg
Rhode Island National Guardsmen sew face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic, April 6, 2020.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, most countries recommended the use of cloth masks to reduce the spread of the virus. [42]

On June 5, 2020, WHO changed its advice on face masks, recommending that the general public should wear fabric masks where widespread COVID-19 transmission exists and physical distancing is not possible (for example, "on public transport, in shops or in other confined or crowded environments"). [43] [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gas mask</span> Protection from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases

A gas mask is an item of personal protective equipment used to protect the wearer from inhaling airborne pollutants and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Most gas masks are also respirators, though the word gas mask is often used to refer to military equipment, the scope used in this article. The gas mask only protects the user from digesting, inhaling, and contact through the eyes. Most combined gas mask filters will last around 8 hours in a biological or chemical situation. Filters against specific chemical agents can last up to 20 hours.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Personal protective equipment</span> Equipment designed to help protect an individual from hazards

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals, biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Protective equipment may be worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and other recreational activities. Protective clothing is applied to traditional categories of clothing, and protective gear applies to items such as pads, guards, shields, or masks, and others. PPE suits can be similar in appearance to a cleanroom suit.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surgical mask</span> Mouth and nose cover against bacterial aerosols

A surgical mask, also known by other names such as a medical face mask or procedure mask, is a personal protective equipment used by healthcare professionals that serves as a mechanical barrier that interferes with direct airflow in and out of respiratory orifices. This helps reduce airborne transmission of pathogens and other aerosolized contaminants between the wearer and nearby people via respiratory droplets ejected when sneezing, coughing, forceful expiration or unintentionally spitting when talking, etc. Surgical masks may be labeled as surgical, isolation, dental or medical procedure masks.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Respirator</span> Device worn to protect the user from inhaling contaminants

A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling hazardous atmospheres including fumes, vapours, gases and particulate matter such as dusts and airborne pathogens such as viruses. There are two main categories of respirators: the air-purifying respirator, in which respirable air is obtained by filtering a contaminated atmosphere, and the air-supplied respirator, in which an alternate supply of breathable air is delivered. Within each category, different techniques are employed to reduce or eliminate noxious airborne contaminants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dust mask</span> Pad held over the nose and mouth to protect against dust

A dust mask is a flexible paper pad held over the nose and mouth by elastic or rubber straps for personal comfort against non-toxic nuisance dusts. They are not intended to provide protection from toxic airborne hazards. The European FFP1 mask, the lowest-grade mechanical filter respirator available in the jurisdiction, is also used as a dust mask.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Airborne transmission</span> Disease transmission by airborne particles

Airborne transmission or aerosol transmission is transmission of an infectious disease through small particles suspended in the air. Infectious diseases capable of airborne transmission include many of considerable importance both in human and veterinary medicine. The relevant infectious agent may be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, and they may be spread through breathing, talking, coughing, sneezing, raising of dust, spraying of liquids, flushing toilets, or any activities which generate aerosol particles or droplets. This is the transmission of diseases via transmission of an infectious agent, and does not include diseases caused by air pollution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Neck gaiter</span> Closed tube of fabric worn around the neck or neck and head for warmth or sun protection

A neck gaiter or neck warmer is a neckwear, or an enlarged collar of a garment, that is worn around the neck for warmth. It is usually a closed tube of fabric, often thick fleece, merino wool, synthetic wicking, or knit material, which is slipped on and off over the head to cover the entire neck and conserve body heat. Some balaclavas are essentially a small hood attached to a neck gaiter. Like gaiters for the lower legs, a neck gaiter augments the protection offered by other garments.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Prevention of viral hemorrhagic fever</span>

Prevention of viral hemorrhagic fever is similar for the different viruses. There are a number of different viral hemorrhagic fevers including Ebola virus disease, Lassa fever, Rift valley fever, Marburg virus disease, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and yellow fever. Lassa, Ebola, Marburg and CCHF can be spread by direct contact with the body fluids of those infected. Thus the content here covers the prevention of Ebola.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Respiratory droplet</span> Type of particle formed by breathing

A respiratory droplet is a small aqueous droplet produced by exhalation, consisting of saliva or mucus and other matter derived from respiratory tract surfaces. Respiratory droplets are produced naturally as a result of breathing, speaking, sneezing, coughing, or vomiting, so they are always present in our breath, but speaking and coughing increase their number.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">NIOSH air filtration rating</span> U.S. rating of respirators such as face masks

The NIOSH air filtration rating is the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)'s classification of filtering respirators. The ratings describe the ability of the device to protect the wearer from solid and liquid particulates in the air. The certification and approval process for respiratory protective devices is governed by Part 84 of Title 42 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Respiratory protective devices so classified include air-purifying respirators (APR) such as filtering facepiece respirators and chemical protective cartridges that have incorporated particulate filter elements.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Powered air-purifying respirator</span>

A powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) is a type of respirator used to safeguard workers against contaminated air. PAPRs consist of a headgear-and-fan assembly that takes ambient air contaminated with one or more type of pollutant or pathogen, actively removes (filters) a sufficient proportion of these hazards, and then delivers the clean air to the user's face or mouth and nose. They have a higher assigned protection factor than filtering facepiece respirators such as N95 masks. PAPRs are sometimes called positive-pressure masks, blower units, or just blowers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">N95 respirator</span> Particulate respirator meeting the N95 standard

An N95 filtering facepiece respirator, commonly abbreviated N95 respirator, is a particulate-filtering facepiece respirator that meets the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) N95 classification of air filtration, meaning that it filters at least 95% of airborne particles that have a mass median aerodynamic diameter of 0.3 micrometers. This standard does not require that the respirator be resistant to oil; another standard, P95, adds that requirement. The N95 type is the most common particulate-filtering facepiece respirator. It is an example of a mechanical filter respirator, which provides protection against particulates but not against gases or vapors. An authentic N95 respirator is marked with the text "NIOSH" or the NIOSH logo, the filter class ("N95"), a "TC" approval number of the form XXX-XXXX, the approval number must be listed on the NIOSH Certified Equipment List (CEL) or the NIOSH Trusted-Source page, and it must have headbands instead of ear loops.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19</span> Prevention measures for COVID-19

Hazard controls for COVID-19 in workplaces are the application of occupational safety and health methodologies for hazard controls to the prevention of COVID-19. Vaccination is the most effective way to protect against severe illness or death from COVID-19. Multiple layers of controls are recommended, including measures such as remote work and flextime, increased ventilation, personal protective equipment (PPE) and face coverings, social distancing, and enhanced cleaning programs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mechanical filter (respirator)</span> Air-filtering face masks or mask attachments

Mechanical filters are a class of filter for air-purifying respirators that mechanically stops particulates from reaching the wearer's nose and mouth. They come in multiple physical forms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic</span> Health control procedure against COVID-19

During the COVID-19 pandemic, face masks or coverings, including N95, FFP2, surgical, and cloth masks, have been employed as public and personal health control measures against the spread of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Source control (respiratory disease)</span> Strategy for reducing disease transmission

Source control is a strategy for reducing disease transmission by blocking respiratory secretions produced through speaking, coughing, sneezing or singing. Surgical masks are commonly used for this purpose, with cloth face masks recommended for use by the public only in epidemic situations when there are shortages of surgical masks. In addition, respiratory etiquette such as covering the mouth and nose with a tissue when coughing can be considered source control. In diseases transmitted by droplets or aerosols, understanding air flow, particle and aerosol transport may lead to rational infrastructural source control measures that minimize exposure of susceptible persons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Transmission of COVID-19</span> Mechanisms that spread coronavirus disease 2019

The transmission of COVID-19 is the passing of coronavirus disease 2019 from person to person. COVID-19 is mainly transmitted when people breathe in air contaminated by droplets/aerosols and small airborne particles containing the virus. Infected people exhale those particles as they breathe, talk, cough, sneeze, or sing. Transmission is more likely the closer people are. However, infection can occur over longer distances, particularly indoors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elastomeric respirator</span> Respirator with a rubber face seal

Elastomeric respirators, also called reusable air-purifying respirators, seal to the face with elastomeric material, which may be a natural or synthetic rubber. They are generally reusable. Full-face versions of elastomeric respirators seal better and protect the eyes.

FFP standards refer to the filtering half mask classification by EN 149, a European standard of testing and marking requirements for filtering half masks. FFP standard masks cover the nose, mouth and chin and may have inhalation and/or exhalation valves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medical textiles</span> Textiles for medical and healthcare use

Medical textiles are various fiber-based materials intended for medical purposes. Medical textile is a sector of technical textiles that focuses on fiber-based products used in health care applications such as prevention, care, and hygiene. The spectrum of applications of medical textiles ranges from simple cotton bandages to advanced tissue engineering. Common examples of products made from medical textiles include dressings, implants, surgical sutures, certain medical devices, healthcare textiles, diapers, menstrual pads, wipes, and barrier fabrics.

References

  1. ↑ Godoy, Laura R. Garcia; Jones, Amy E.; Anderson, Taylor N.; Fisher, Cameron L.; Seeley, Kylie M. L.; Beeson, Erynn A.; Zane, Hannah K.; Peterson, Jaime W.; Sullivan, Peter D. (May 1, 2020). "Facial protection for healthcare workers during pandemics: a scoping review". BMJ Global Health. 5 (5): e002553. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-002553. ISSN   2059-7908. PMC   7228486 . PMID   32371574.
  2. 1 2 3 "Use of Cloth Face Coverings to Help Slow the Spread of COVID-19". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 4, 2020. Retrieved April 5, 2020.PD-icon.svg This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Reusability of Facemasks During an Influenza Pandemic: Facing the Flu. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. July 24, 2006. pp. 6, 36–38. doi:10.17226/11637. ISBN   978-0-309-10182-0.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 MacIntyre, C. R.; Chughtai, A. A. (April 9, 2015). "Facemasks for the prevention of infection in healthcare and community settings" (PDF). BMJ. 350 (apr09 1): h694. doi:10.1136/bmj.h694. ISSN   1756-1833. PMID   25858901. S2CID   46366687.
  5. 1 2 3 Shakya, Kabindra M.; Noyes, Alyssa; Kallin, Randa; Peltier, Richard E. (May 1, 2017). "Evaluating the efficacy of cloth facemasks in reducing particulate matter exposure" (PDF). Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. 27 (3): 352–357. doi:10.1038/jes.2016.42. ISSN   1559-064X. PMID   27531371. S2CID   8794360.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Chughtai, Abrar Ahmad; Seale, Holly; MacIntyre, Chandini Raina (June 19, 2013). "Use of cloth masks in the practice of infection control – evidence and policy gaps". International Journal of Infection Control. 9 (3). doi: 10.3396/IJIC.v9i3.020.13 . ISSN   1996-9783.
  7. ↑ "The Best Reusable Face Masks". The New York Times. January 6, 2022. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved March 28, 2022.
  8. 1 2 "Coronavirus: WHO advises to wear masks in public areas". BBC. June 6, 2020.
  9. ↑ "Recommendation Regarding the Use of Cloth Face Coverings, Especially in Areas of Significant Community-Based Transmission". CDC . April 3, 2020.
  10. ↑ "5 Myths About Coronavirus and Face Masks, Debunked. Are you wearing yours the right way?". Cleveland Clinic . June 4, 2020.
  11. ↑ "COVID-19: How much protection do face masks offer?". Mayo Clinic . May 28, 2020.
  12. ↑ "Coronavirus Face Masks & Protection FAQs". Johns Hopkins School of Medicine . June 25, 2020.
  13. 1 2 3 4 "Advice on the use of masks in the context of COVID-19". WHO. June 5, 2020.
  14. ↑ Clase, C.M., Fu, E.L.F., Ashur, A., Beale, R.C.L., Clase, I.A., Dolovich, M.B., Jardine, M.J., Joseph, M., Kansiime, G., Mann, J.F.E., Pecoirs-Filho, R., Winkelmayer, W. C. and Carrero, J. J. Forgotten technology in the COVID-19 pandemic. Filtration properties of cloth and cloth masks: a narrative review. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 2020; https://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(20)30826-0/fulltext
  15. ↑ Matuschek, Christiane; Moll, Friedrich; Fangerau, Heiner; Fischer, Johannes C.; Zänker, Kurt; van Griensven, Martijn; Schneider, Marion; Kindgen-Milles, Detlef; Knoefel, Wolfram Trudo; Lichtenberg, Artur; Tamaskovics, Balint; Djiepmo-Njanang, Freddy Joel; Budach, Wilfried; Corradini, Stefanie; Häussinger, Dieter; Feldt, Torsten; Jensen, Björn; Pelka, Rainer; Orth, Klaus; Peiper, Matthias; Grebe, Olaf; Maas, Kitti; Gerber, Peter Arne; Pedoto, Alessia; Bölke, Edwin; Haussmann, Jan (August 12, 2020). "Face masks: benefits and risks during the COVID-19 crisis". European Journal of Medical Research. 25 (1): 32. doi: 10.1186/s40001-020-00430-5 . PMC   7422455 . PMID   32787926.
  16. ↑ "FAQs on the Emergency Use Authorization for Face Masks (Non-Surgical)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration . April 26, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  17. ↑ "Meat and Poultry Processing Workers and Employers". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 26, 2020. Retrieved May 8, 2020.
  18. 1 2 Rengasamy S, Eimer B, Shaffer RE (2010). "Simple Respiratory Protection—Evaluation of the Filtration Performance of Cloth Masks and Common Fabric Materials Against 20–1000 nm Size Particles". Annals of Occupational Hygiene. Oxford University Press. 54 (7): 789–798. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/meq044 . ISSN   0003-4878. PMC   7314261 . PMID   20584862.
  19. 1 2 "Using face masks in the community - Reducing COVID-19 transmission from potentially asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic people through the use of face masks". European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control . April 8, 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  20. ↑ MacIntyre, C. R.; Seale, H.; Dung, T. C.; Hien, N. T.; Nga, P. T.; Chughtai, A. A.; Rahman, B.; Dwyer, D. E.; Wang, Q. (April 22, 2015). "A cluster randomised trial of cloth masks compared with medical masks in healthcare workers". BMJ Open. 5 (4): e006577. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006577 . ISSN   2044-6055. PMC   4420971 . PMID   25903751.
  21. ↑ Mondal, Agnibho; Das, Arnavjyoti; Goswami, Rama Prosad (May 11, 2020). "Utility of Cloth Masks in Preventing Respiratory Infections: A Systematic Review". medRxiv   10.1101/2020.05.07.20093864 .
  22. 1 2 "Should the public wear masks to slow the spread of SARS-CoV-2?". The Economist. ISSN   0013-0613 . Retrieved April 20, 2020.
  23. ↑ "How important is "silent spreading" in the covid-19 epidemic?". The Economist. ISSN   0013-0613 . Retrieved April 20, 2020.
  24. ↑ https://my.clevelandclinic.org/-/scassets/files/org/employer-solutions/covid-19-workplace-safety-faqs.ashx [ bare URL PDF ]
  25. 1 2 Greene VW, Vesley D. Method for evaluating effectiveness of surgical masks. J Bacteriol. 1962;83:663-7. [ PMID   13901536]
  26. 1 2 Quesnel LB. The efficiency of surgical masks of varying design and composition. Br J Surg. 1975;62:936-40. [ PMID   1203649]
  27. ↑ Davies, Anna; Thompson, Katy-Anne; Giri, Karthika; Kafatos, George; Walker, Jimmy; Bennett, Allan (May 22, 2013). "Testing the Efficacy of Homemade Masks: Would They Protect in an Influenza Pandemic?". Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. 7 (4): 413–418. doi:10.1017/dmp.2013.43. ISSN   1935-7893. PMC   7108646 . PMID   24229526.
  28. ↑ van der Sande, Marianne; Teunis, Peter; Sabel, Rob (July 9, 2008). Pai, Madhukar (ed.). "Professional and Home-Made Face Masks Reduce Exposure to Respiratory Infections among the General Population". PLOS ONE. Public Library of Science (PLoS). 3 (7): e2618. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2618V. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002618 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   2440799 . PMID   18612429.
  29. ↑ Davies, Anna; Thompson, Katy-Anne; Giri, Karthika; Kafatos, George; Walker, Jimmy; Bennett, Allan (May 22, 2013). "Testing the Efficacy of Homemade Masks: Would They Protect in an Influenza Pandemic?". Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness. Cambridge University Press (CUP). 7 (4): 413–418. doi:10.1017/dmp.2013.43. ISSN   1935-7893. PMC   7108646 . PMID   24229526.
  30. ↑ Rengasamy, S.; Eimer, B.; Shaffer, R. E. (June 28, 2010). "Simple Respiratory Protection—Evaluation of the Filtration Performance of Cloth Masks and Common Fabric Materials Against 20–1000 nm Size Particles". The Annals of Occupational Hygiene. Oxford University Press (OUP). 54 (7): 789–98. doi: 10.1093/annhyg/meq044 . ISSN   1475-3162. PMC   7314261 . PMID   20584862.
  31. 1 2 Konda, Abhiteja; Prakash, Abhinav; Moss, Gregory A.; Schmoldt, Michael; Grant, Gregory D.; Guha, Supratik (April 24, 2020). "Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks". ACS Nano. American Chemical Society (ACS). 14 (5): 6339–6347. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03252 . ISSN   1936-0851. PMC   7185834 . PMID   32329337.
  32. ↑ "Coronavirus: How to Care for Your Face Mask". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved August 4, 2020.
  33. ↑ "Gauze Mask to Halt Spread of Plague". The Washington Times. September 27, 1918. p. 3.
  34. ↑ George, Nirmala (September 11, 2005). "Jain Ascetics Give It All Up for Their Faith". Los Angeles Times . Retrieved October 31, 2020.
  35. ↑ Briggs, Kenneth A. (August 28, 1975). "A Jainist Monk Brings Ascetic Ways Here". New York Times . Retrieved October 31, 2020.
  36. ↑ "Jainism in India". people.uwec.edu. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 31, 2020.
  37. ↑ "The History of Respirator". Cambridge Mask Co. March 28, 2016. The idea of using respirators was pioneered by Pliny the Elder in the first century A.D. when he recommended the use of animal bladder to protect Roman miners from inhaling lead oxide dust. Early inventions did not stop with Pliny as in the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci, advised the use of a wet woven cloth to protect against toxic agents of chemical warfare.
  38. ↑ Guttmacher, Peter (1995). Legendary Westerns. MetroBooks. p. 17. ISBN   9781567991727 . Retrieved August 21, 2020. Before Sam Peckinpah ever wore a bandana , before Paul Newman and Robert Redford ever got into western gear, these gentlemen train robbers [...]
  39. ↑ Fielding H. Garrison (1921). History of Medicine (3rd ed.). Philadelphia W.B. Saunders. p. 761.
  40. ↑ O'Donnell, V. R.; Chinelatto, L. A.; Rodrigues, C.; Hojaij, F. C. (2020). "A brief history of medical uniforms: from ancient history to the COVID-19 time". Rev Col Bras Cir. 47: e20202597. doi: 10.1590/0100-6991e-20202597 . PMID   32520135. S2CID   219563013.
  41. ↑ Lynteris, Christos (August 18, 2018). "Plague Masks: The Visual Emergence of Anti-Epidemic Personal Protection Equipment". Medical Anthropology. 37 (6): 442–457. doi: 10.1080/01459740.2017.1423072 . hdl: 10023/16472 . ISSN   0145-9740. PMID   30427733.
  42. ↑ "Which Countries Are Requiring Face Masks?". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved January 5, 2021.
  43. ↑ "Advice on the use of masks in the context of COVID-19: Interim guidance". World health Organization. June 5, 2020. p. 7. Retrieved August 21, 2020. Table 2: Examples of where the general public should be encouraged to use medical and non-medical masks in areas with known or suspected community transmission
  44. ↑ "Coronavirus: WHO advises to wear masks in public areas". BBC News. June 6, 2020. [...] WHO director-general Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said on Friday that 'in light of evolving evidence, the WHO advises that governments should encourage the general public to wear masks where there is widespread transmission and physical distancing is difficult, such as on public transport, in shops or in other confined or crowded environments'.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.