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Although Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic are closely related as Goidelic (a.k.a. Gaelic) Celtic languages, they are different in many ways. While most dialects are not immediately mutually comprehensible (although many individual words and phrases are), speakers of the three languages can rapidly develop mutual intelligibility.[ citation needed ]
The spoken dialects of Irish and Scottish Gaelic are most similar to one another in Ulster and southwestern Scotland, regions of close geographical proximity to one another. It is thought that the extinct dialect of Galwegian Gaelic, spoken in Galloway in the far south of Scotland, was very similar to Ulster Irish and Manx.
While the dialects of northern Scotland and southern Ireland tend to differ the most from one another in terms of vocabulary, they do share some features which are absent in other dialect areas lying between them. For example, in both Munster Irish and the Gaelic of the north of Scotland, historically short vowels have been diphthongised or lengthened before fortis sonorants. An example of this is the word clann "children of the family". In Munster Irish and northern Scottish Gaelic it is pronounced [kɫaunˠ] whereas in Ulster and County Mayo it is [kɫanˠ] and in Connemara [kɫɑːnˠ]; the Manx form cloan is [kɫaunˠ] in the north and [kɫoːdnˠ] in the south.
In addition, slender coronal stops (/tʲ/ and /tʲʰ/ in Scottish Gaelic; /tʲ/ and /dʲ/ in Irish), are affricated (such as [tʃ] and [dʒ]) in Mayo [1] [2] and Donegal, [3] the southern Highlands and in Manx, but not in Munster or the northern Highlands. [4]
In the verb tá of Standard Irish, northern Scotland and Central-Southern Munster agree in leniting the initial ⟨t⟩, thus one hears thá in County Waterford and County Tipperary, and tha in northern Scotland. West Munster also lenites the ⟨t⟩, but only after the preverb a "that" e.g. an fear a thá ina sheasamh ag an doras "the man that's standing at the door" (Standard Irish an fear atá ina sheasamh ag an doras, Scottish Gaelic am fear a tha na sheasamh aig an doras).
The closest to Scottish Gaelic in modern Irish is the dialect currently spoken in County Donegal, as illustrated by the sentence "How are you?".
Sibh is used in both Irish and Scottish Gaelic for the plural "you", while Scottish Gaelic (except for the far south) also uses sibh as a formal version of "you" (much like French uses vous; see "T–V distinction"). Modern Irish does not use this formal/informal distinction when addressing people. The use of sibh as 'polite' you is a retention from the Classical Irish usage of the plural personal pronouns to refer to the singular in polite communication, thus sinn "we" for mé "I, me" and sibh "you (plural)" for tú "you/thou". Thu is used in Scottish Gaelic when speaking to an individual friend, family member, or a younger person.
The negative particle in Scottish Gaelic, Manx and Northern Ulster Irish is cha/chan (chan eil, cha bhfuil/chan fhuil = "is not"; chan is from the Old Irish emphatic negative nichon). In standard Irish the negative particle is ní (níl = "is not", a contraction of ní fhuil); ní is a retention of the normal Old Irish negative; these are illustrated by the sentence "I have no money":
Scottish Gaelic speakers may also sound as if they were using the Irish phrase, as Chan eil can frequently be shortened to n eil.
The Classical Irish digraph ⟨éu⟩[eːʷ] is still used in Scottish Gaelic spelling but is now obsolete in Irish, except in southern dialect writing, as a means to distinguish the vowel ⟨é⟩ when followed by a broad consonant from the regular dialect development ⟨é⟩ to ⟨i⟩ in the same environment, thus éan[ian] "bird" in comparison to d'éug[dʲeːɡ] "died; passed on). ⟨éa⟩ is now used instead of ⟨eu⟩ in Standard Irish. Both ⟨éa⟩ and ⟨éu⟩ existed in Classical Irish, to a large extent showing nominal case differences (with ⟨éu⟩ varying with ⟨éo⟩ in the dative of ⟨éa⟩-words), however in both Scotland and Ireland, spelling reforms and standardisation (which took place in Ireland under the auspices of the government of Ireland during the 20th century, and much earlier in Scotland) independently went for different versions.
At times Scottish writers used the spelling ⟨ia⟩ to represent how the combination is pronounced in northern dialects, writing ⟨ian⟩ instead of ⟨eun⟩, the southern form. Manx spelling, based mainly on English, shows that ⟨ia⟩ is also the underlying form in Manx, the word being spelled ⟨eean⟩.
The most obvious phonological difference between Irish and Scottish Gaelic is that the phenomenon of eclipsis in Irish is diachronic (i.e. the result of a historical word-final nasal that may or may not be present in modern Irish) but fully synchronic in Scottish Gaelic (i.e. it requires the actual presence of a word-final nasal except for a tiny set of frozen forms). Eclipsis is shown in Irish orthography but not in Scottish Gaelic as it is conditioned by the actual environment.
For example, this means that phrases like Standard Irish ag an doras, standard Scottish Gaelic aig an doras†, Manx ec y(n) dorrys is pronounced as follows in different parts of the Gaelic speaking world:
An example of diachronic-type eclipsis are the numbers:
† In conservative speech, Scottish Gaelic feminine nouns also slenderise in the dative (prepositional) case, giving aig an uinneig, and so a different final consonant. This feature is uncommon today except in more formal registers and is ignored here. [6]
There are a number of distinctive orthographical (written) differences. The spellings of both languages have been reformed in recent decades, which has led to further divergence, though conversely more recent spelling reforms in Scottish Gaelic have reduced the divergences to some extent.
One difference is that the accent is written as a grave accent (Scottish Gaelic: stràc throm, "heavy stroke/accent") in Scottish Gaelic, as opposed to the acute accent ((síneadh) fada, "long (sign)" used in Irish; hence the word for "welcome" is written as fàilte in Scottish Gaelic and in Irish as fáilte. Irish does not use the grave accent, while until recently Scottish Gaelic used the grave and acute accents to differentiate between open and closed vowel sounds. However, recent spelling reform has meant that only grave accents are now in Scottish Gaelic, leaving phonemic distinctions unmarked.
Another difference in Scottish Gaelic is that the aspirate linker h- is always hyphenated, while in Irish it is attached to the beginning of the word, as illustrated by the languages' respective names for each other:
Additionally, while the linkers n- and t- are usually hyphenated in both languages, in Irish they are attached to the beginning of words whose first letter is capitalised; in Scottish Gaelic they are always hyphenated.
A number of letter combinations are possible in written Irish which are not found in Scottish Gaelic e.g. ⟨ae⟩, ⟨bhf⟩. Irish uses ⟨cht⟩ where Scottish Gaelic uses ⟨chd⟩, although ⟨chd⟩ itself was once common in written Irish, as was ⟨cht⟩ in Scottish Gaelic – both being used in Classical Gaelic. In the combinations ⟨sc/sg⟩ and ⟨st/sd⟩, Irish now uses ⟨sc⟩ and ⟨st⟩, while Scottish Gaelic uses ⟨sg⟩ and both ⟨sd⟩ and ⟨st⟩, despite there being no phonetic difference between the two languages. [7]
Most obvious differences in spelling result from the deletion of silent lenited digraphs (mainly ⟨dh⟩, ⟨gh⟩, and ⟨th⟩) in Irish in spelling reforms, which was only sometimes done in Scottish Gaelic. Overall, Scottish Gaelic orthography is more conservative than that of Irish.
| English | Irish | Scottish Gaelic | Manx | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| authority | údarás | ùghdarras | eaghtyrys | Pre 1950s ughdarás in Irish |
| black | dubh | dubh | doo | |
| bridge | droichead | drochaid | droghad | |
| child | páiste, leanbh | pàiste, leanabh | paitchey, lhiannoo | |
| church | eaglais | eaglais | agglish | In Irish, eaglais is a Roman Catholic house of worship; a Protestant house of worship is called a teampall (temple). Séipéal is also used as it can mean chapel as well. |
| day | lá | latha, là | laa | |
| Gael | Gael | Gàidheal | Gael | Pre 1950s Gaedheal in Irish |
| God | Dia | Dia | Jee | |
| government | rialtas | riaghaltas | reiltys | Pre-1950s riaghaltas in Irish |
| hotel | óstán, teach/tigh ósta | taigh-òsda [7] | thie oast | Pre 1950s óstán/ósdán, teach/tigh ósta/ósda in Irish |
| house | teach; M: tigh | taigh | thie | In biblical Gaelic tigh |
| inside | isteach | a-steach | stiagh | |
| Ireland | Éire, Éirinn | Èirinn, Èire | Nerin | |
| island | oileán, inis | eilean, inis | ellan, inish | |
| king | rí | rìgh | ree | Pre-1950s genitive ríogh and dative rígh in Irish |
| news | nuacht; U: nuaidheacht | naidheachd | naight | |
| night | oíche | oidhche | oie | Pre 1950s oidhche in Irish |
| office | oifig | oifis | offish | |
| open | oscail | fosgail | foshil | Also foscail in Ulster Irish |
| parliament | parlaimint | pàrlamaid | parlamaid | |
| prayer | urnaí | ùrnaigh | ! | Also urnaighe in Irish. |
| radio | raidió | radio | radio | Also réidió and rèidio in spoken Irish and Scottish Gaelic |
| report | aithris | aithris | arrish | |
| river | abhainn, M: abha | abhainn | awin | |
| school | scoil | sgoil | scoill | Pre 1950s sgoil/scoil in Irish |
| Scotland | Alba, Albain | Alba | Albey | |
| star | réalt(a) | reul | rolt | Pre 1950s réalt(a), reult(a) in Irish |
| town | baile | baile | balley | |
| without | gan | gun | dyn, gyn | |
| water | uisce | uisge | ushtey | |
| whisk(e)y | uisce beatha | uisge-beatha | ushtey bea | |
| white | bán | bàn | bane | |
| year | bliain | bliadhna | blein | Pre-1950s bliadhain in Irish. The form bliadhna (bliana today) is used as a special plural form following numerals; the regular plural is blianta). Some eastern Scottish Gaelic dialects use the form bliadhn. [8] |
| English | Irish | Scottish Gaelic | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| America | Meiriceá, Meirice | Ameireaga | |
| Bible | Bíobla | Bìoball | |
| cold (sickness) | slaghdán | cnatan | Meaning illness |
| England | Sasana | Sasainn | |
| Germany | An Ghearmáin | A' Ghearmailt | |
| in | i, in | (ann) an | In Classical Irish the forms were "i", "a", "in", "an" – "i/in" when the following sound was slender, and "a/an" when the following sound was broad. In both Irish and Scottish, in the spoken language, the four forms of "i", "a", "in", "an" still exist. |
| London | Londain | Lunnain | |
| minister | ministir, ministéir | ministear | In Irish, aire for a government minister |
| road | bóthar/ród | rathad | |
| talking | ag caint | a' bruidhinn | Bruíon (formerly bruighean) in Irish means "fighting", "quarrelling." Cainnt in Scottish Gaelic is used as a noun only, meaning "speech," except in Arran where it is also a verb [9] |
Differences can also be seen in words used for geographical features. For example, "hill" and "mountain" are usually "cnoc" (Knocknapeasta) and "sliabh" (Slieve Donard) respectively in Ireland, but "càrn" (Cairn Gorm) and "beinn" (Ben Nevis) in Scotland. Additionally, "inbhir," meaning "river mouth" and usually Anglicized as "inver" (for example Inverness or Inveraray), very common in Scotland, is almost never seen in Ireland.
| Irish | English | Scottish Gaelic | English | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| An Bhreatain Bheag | Wales | A' Bhreatainn Bheag | Brittany | Breatain (Britain) is the same in both. The Scottish Gaelic equivalent for Wales is A' Chuimrigh, a Gaelicisation of an Anglicisation of the Welsh Cymru. The Irish for Brittany is An Bhriotáin from Latin "Britannia". |
| cuan | harbour | cuan | ocean | A number of words are used in both languages for "ocean" and "sea", such as aigéan/aigeun, an fharraige. Caladh or cala (also in the compound "calafort" < "cala-phort") are commonly used in Irish for "harbour". |
| shiúil sé | He walked | shiubhail e | He died | Siubhail means "walk" or "stroll" in Scottish Gaelic, but is also a euphemism for death |
Article 1 of the UDHR in the languages:
| Language | Text |
|---|---|
| English | All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. [10] |
| Irish | Saolaítear gach duine den chine daonna saor agus comhionann i ndínit agus i gcearta. Tá bua an réasúin agus an choinsiasa acu agus ba cheart dóibh gníomhú i dtreo a chéile i spiorad an bhráithreachais. [11] |
| Manx | Ta dy chooilley ghooinney ruggit seyr as corrym rish dy chooilley ghooinney elley ayns ooashley as ayns cairys. Ta resoon as cooinsheanse stowit orroo as lhisagh ad dellal rish y cheilley lesh spyrryd braaragh. [12] |
| Scottish Gaelic | Rugadh na h-uile duine saor agus co-ionnan nan urram 's nan còirichean. Tha iad reusanta is cogaiseach, agus bu chòir dhaibh a ghiùlain ris a chèile ann an spiorad bràthaireil. [13] |
The Goidelic or Gaelic languages form one of the two groups of Insular Celtic languages, the other being the Brittonic languages.
Manx, also known as Manx Gaelic, is a Gaelic language of the insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Manx is the historical language of the Manx people.
Ulster Scots or Ulster-Scots, also known as Ulster Scotch and Ullans, is the dialect spoken in parts of Ulster, being almost exclusively spoken in parts of Northern Ireland and County Donegal. It is normally considered a dialect or group of dialects of Scots, although groups such as the Ulster-Scots Language Society and Ulster-Scots Academy consider it a language in its own right, and the Ulster-Scots Agency and former Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure have used the term Ulster-Scots language.
The morphology of Irish is in some respects typical of an Indo-European language. Nouns are declined for number and case, and verbs for person and number. Nouns are classified by masculine or feminine gender. Other aspects of Irish morphology, while typical for an Insular Celtic language, are not typical for Indo-European, such as the presence of inflected prepositions and the initial consonant mutations. Irish syntax is also rather different from that of most Indo-European languages, due to its use of the verb–subject–object word order.
The declension of Irish nouns, the definite article, and the adjectives is discussed on this page.
Irish phonology varies from dialect to dialect; there is no standard pronunciation of Irish. Therefore, this article focuses on phenomena shared by most or all dialects, and on the major differences among the dialects. Detailed discussion of the dialects can be found in the specific articles: Ulster Irish, Connacht Irish, and Munster Irish.
Yinz is a second-person plural pronoun used mainly in Western Pennsylvania English. It is most prominent in Pittsburgh, but it is also found throughout the cultural region known as Appalachia, located within the geographical region of the Appalachians.
Irish orthography is the set of conventions used to write Irish. A spelling reform in the mid-20th century led to An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, the modern standard written form used by the Government of Ireland, which regulates both spelling and grammar. The reform removed inter-dialectal silent letters, simplified some letter sequences, and modernised archaic spellings to reflect modern pronunciation, but it also removed letters pronounced in some dialects but not in others.
Irish verb forms are constructed either synthetically or analytically.
Irish, like all modern Celtic languages, is characterised by its initial consonant mutations. These mutations affect the initial consonant of a word under specific morphological and syntactic conditions. The mutations are an important tool in understanding the relationship between two words and can differentiate various meanings.
Ulster English, also called Northern Hiberno-English or Northern Irish English, is the variety of English spoken mostly around the Irish province of Ulster and throughout Northern Ireland. The dialect has been influenced by the local Ulster dialect of the Scots language, brought over by Scottish settlers during the Plantation of Ulster and subsequent settlements throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. It also coexists alongside the Ulster dialect of the Irish (Gaelic) language.
Ulster Irish is the variety of Irish spoken in the province of Ulster. It "occupies a central position in the Gaelic world made up of Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man". Ulster Irish thus has much in common with Scottish Gaelic and Manx. Within Ulster there have historically been two main sub-dialects: West Ulster and East Ulster. The Western dialect is spoken in parts of County Donegal and once was spoken in parts of neighbouring counties, hence the name 'Donegal Irish'. The Eastern dialect was spoken in most of the rest of Ulster and northern parts of counties Louth and Meath.
Connacht Irish is the dialect of the Irish language spoken in the province of Connacht. Gaeltacht regions in Connacht are found in Counties Mayo and Galway. Connacht Irish is also spoken in the Meath Gealtacht Ráth Chairn and Baile Ghib. The dialects of Irish in Connacht are extremely diverse, with the pronunciation, forms and lexicon being different even within each county.
Munster Irish is the dialect of the Irish language spoken in the province of Munster. Gaeltacht regions in Munster are found in the Gaeltachtaí of the Dingle Peninsula in west County Kerry, in the Iveragh Peninsula in south Kerry, in Cape Clear Island off the coast of west County Cork, in Muskerry West; Cúil Aodha, Ballingeary, Ballyvourney, Kilnamartyra, and Renaree of central County Cork; and in an Rinn and an Sean Phobal in Gaeltacht na nDéise in west County Waterford.
The languages of Scotland belong predominantly to the Germanic and Celtic language families. The main language now spoken in Scotland is English, while Scots and Scottish Gaelic are minority languages. The dialect of English spoken in Scotland is referred to as Scottish English.
This article describes the grammar of the Scottish Gaelic language.
Irish, also known as Irish Gaelic or simply Gaelic, is a Celtic language of the Indo-European language family. It is a member of the Goidelic language group of the Insular Celtic sub branch of the family and is indigenous to the island of Ireland. It was the majority of the population's first language until the 19th century, when English gradually became dominant, particularly in the last decades of the century, in what is sometimes characterised as a result of linguistic imperialism.
There is no standard variety of Scottish Gaelic; although statements below are about all or most dialects, the north-western dialects are discussed more than others as they represent the majority of speakers.
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil, often shortened to An Caighdeán, is the variety of the Irish language that is used as the standard or state norm for the spelling and the grammar of the language and is used in official publications and taught in most schools in the Republic of Ireland. The standard is based on the three Gaeltacht dialects: Connacht Irish, Munster Irish and Ulster Irish. In Northern Ireland and County Donegal, the Ulster dialect is used extensively alongside the standard form as the spoken language in primary and secondary schools.
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