Domestic sheep predation

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A lamb being attacked by a coyote in the most typical method, a bite to the throat Coyotekilling.jpg
A lamb being attacked by a coyote in the most typical method, a bite to the throat

Along with parasites and disease, predation is a threat to sheep health and consequently to the profitability of sheep raising. Sheep have very little ability to defend themselves, even when compared with other prey species kept as livestock. Even if sheep are not directly bitten or survive an attack, they may die from panic or from injuries sustained. [1]

Contents

However, the impact of predation varies dramatically with region. In Africa, Australia, the Americas, and parts of Europe and Asia predators can be a serious problem. In contrast, some nations are virtually devoid of sheep predators. Many islands that are known for extensive sheep husbandry are suitable largely because of their predator-free status. [1]

Worldwide, canids —including the domestic dog —are responsible for the majority of sheep deaths. [2] [3] [4] Other animals that prey on sheep include (but are not limited to) felines, birds of prey, and feral hogs. [1]

Relation to sheep behavior

Sheep flight behavior is cited in one major study in California as the major stimulus responsible for eliciting predatory behavior in coyotes. Even coyotes that had not previously been exposed to sheep demonstrated predatory behavior when exposed to them for the first time. Of particular interest was that coyotes with no previous prey-killing experience readily attacked and killed sheep when given the chance. The coyotes were likely to attack sheep that exhibited flight behavior even when these coyotes were not hungry. The same study also determined that dominant coyotes were more likely to attack sheep. [5]

By region

North America

According to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, 224,200 sheep were killed in the U.S. by predators in 2004, comprising approximately 37% of all bovine deaths for that year. [6] The sheep lost in that year represented a sum total of 18.3 million dollars for sheep producers. [6] Coyotes were responsible for 60.5% of all deaths, with the next largest being domestic dogs at 13.3%. [6] Other North American predators of sheep included cougars (5.7%), bobcats (4.9%), eagles (2.8%), bears (3.8%), and foxes (1.9%). [6] Wolves, ravens, vultures, and other animals together made up the remaining 7.1% of deaths. [6] As all NASS statistics on sheep only take into account sheep after docking, the American Sheep Industry Association estimates that an additional 50–60,000 lambs were killed (before docking) that were not a part of the count. [7] The number of sheep lost to predators may also be higher when considering that reports are generally only made when there is a reasonable expectation that a producer will be financially reimbursed for the loss. [8]

South America

In South America, the only widespread potential predators of sheep are cougars and jaguars, both of which are known to prey on livestock regularly. South American canids such as the maned wolf and foxes of the genus Lycalopex are also blamed for sheep deaths, but no evidence for a statistically significant amount of predation by most of these species has ever been presented. [4] However, the culpeo is a threat to sheep, and is responsible for 60% of the predator losses in Patagonia. [4]

Africa

Though large, the South African sheep industry is significantly hindered by the innumerable predators present in the country. [9] [10] Other African nations that rely on sheep face a similar problem. [9]

Black-backed jackals are the most significant sheep predators of southern and eastern Africa. Jackal predation typically peaks during droughts when wild food is scarce and the sheep are weakened. Merino sheep tend to be the most vulnerable, due to their habit of scattering upon attack, unlike fat-tailed sheep which bunch together for defence. In Transvaal between 1965 and 1971, a study on the stomach contents of over 400 jackals showed that sheep constituted 6% of the diet of jackals living in game reserves, and 27% for those living near farming districts. A similar study in Natal revealed that sheep constituted 35% of the resident jackal's diet. [11]

Australia and New Zealand

One of several rams and wethers that were killed during an attack by domestic dogs. Ram attack.JPG
One of several rams and wethers that were killed during an attack by domestic dogs.

The main Australian predator of sheep is the dingo, which is a large-enough danger to sheep to precipitate the construction of the world's largest fence: the Dingo Fence. Red foxes also may prey on 10-30% of lambs, costing Australians sheep breeders more than A$100 million annually. [12] Annual baiting programs are conducted to reduce the number of dingoes and foxes. Uncontrolled domestic dogs also regularly menace and kill sheep. Occasionally wedge-tailed eagles will kill young sheep up to and including hogget size sheep. Prior to its extinction in Tasmania the thylacine, also called the Tasmanian tiger, was also considered a major predator of sheep; however, this was unfounded, as thylacine jaws were not strong enough to kill sheep. Blame for supposed predation on sheep accelerated persecution by farmers and its eventual extinction. [13] [14] [15] [16]

In contrast, New Zealand has no remaining large carnivores since the extinction of the Haast's eagle. The only wild animal known to attack sheep in New Zealand is the rare, unusual kea parrot endemic to the country's South Island.

British Isles

Brown bears are thought to have become extinct in the British Isles in the year 500, [17] while the last wolves were wiped out in 1786. [18] Today the only wild animals remaining as a tangible threat to lambs in the British Isles are the red fox, European badger, and eagles. Domestic dogs are also a common cause of predation of lambs and sheep (they can also sometimes die of shock after any attempted predation or attack). There are many anecdotal reports of badgers predating sheep or lambs, but very little solid evidence of attacks. Badgers will scavenge carcasses of animals that have died of other causes and do have the ability to kill lambs but there is little proof that this is anything other than an occasional occurrence. In an independent report on the impact of badgers it was reported that a Scottish survey of sheep farmers in 2019 found that of farmers who thought they had suffered predation 11% were of the opinion that badgers were responsible for some of their losses, although a majority of these did not actually witness an attack. The report also points out that predation (by many species, not just badgers) is often both misidentified and overestimated which makes it difficult to conclude an accurate figure for badger attacks. [19] Corvids such as the hooded crow and Eurasian magpie are known to kill lambs, often first disabling them by pecking out their eyes; if a sheep has fallen over during parturition or bad weather and cannot get up, again crows will first attack their eyes. [20] Larger predatory birds such as golden eagles and white-tailed eagles may pose a threat to sheep in the north of Britain, where their ranges remain stable, but studies show that overall levels of predation are likely to be low (in the order of 1-3%), [21] [22] although a small number of farmers may occasionally suffer slightly higher losses. [23]

Mainland Europe

In Greece, between April 1989 and June 1991, 21,000 sheep and goats were killed by wolves. In 1998 it was 5,894 sheep and goats. [24]

In southern Bulgaria, golden jackals were recorded to have attacked 1,053 sheep between 1982–87. [24]

Asia

A study on livestock predation taken in Tibet showed that the Himalayan wolf was the most prominent predator, accounting for 60% of the total livestock losses, followed by the snow leopard (38%) and Eurasian lynx (2%). Sheep were the second most targeted victims after goats, amounting to over 30% of losses. [25]

Prevention

A Maremma Sheepdog livestock guardian dog with its flock Protector of the sheep.jpg
A Maremma Sheepdog livestock guardian dog with its flock

Sheep producers have used a wide variety of measures to try to combat predation throughout history. Pre-modern shepherds had only the most basic of tools: their own presence, livestock guardian dogs, and protective structures such as barns and fencing. Fencing (both regular and electric), penning sheep at night and lambing indoors all continue to be widely–used methods of protection today. [26] Whereas sheepdogs herd sheep, guardian dogs are trained to integrate into flocks and protect them from predators. The ability of these dogs to do so is a transference of the canine pack social structure on to a flock. Following their invention, the focus in dealing with predators shifted to the nearly exclusive use of guns, traps, and poisons to kill predators both defensively and preemptively. [1] The population of predator species plummeted worldwide, pushing some to extinction (such as the thylacine) or significantly reducing their original ranges. With the appearance of the environmental and conservation movements, and subsequent state, provincial, national and international legislation, simply exterminating predator species failed to be a legally viable option for protecting flocks. [1] However, many countries maintain government agencies—such as the Wildlife Services program, a wing of the USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service —to shoot, poison and trap predators that threaten sheep. [27] Wildlife conservation organizations charge that this killing is both indiscriminate and ineffective at protecting sheep. [28] [29]

The 1970s saw an ensuing resurgence in the use of livestock guardian dogs and the development of new methods of predator control, many of them non–lethal. [30] Donkeys and guard llamas or alpacas have been used since the 1980s in sheep operations, using the same basic principle as livestock guardian dogs. [1] Interspecific pasturing, usually with larger livestock such as cattle or horses, make also help to deter predators, even if such species do not actively guard sheep. [26] In addition to animal guardians, contemporary sheep operations may use non–lethal predator deterrents such as motion–activated lights and noisy alarms. While these devices have been shown to be successful, predators can become habituated to them. [1]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Coyote</span> Species of canine native to North America

The coyote is a species of canine native to North America. It is smaller than its close relative, the wolf, and slightly smaller than the closely related eastern wolf and red wolf. It fills much of the same ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia. The coyote is larger and more predatory and was once referred to as the American jackal by a behavioral ecologist. Other historical names for the species include the prairie wolf and the brush wolf.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dhole</span> Species of mammal

The dhole is a canid native to Central, South, East and Southeast Asia. Other English names for the species include Asian wild dog, Asiatic wild dog, Indian wild dog, whistling dog, red dog, red wolf, and mountain wolf. It is genetically close to species within the genus Canis, but distinct in several anatomical aspects: its skull is convex rather than concave in profile, it lacks a third lower molar and the upper molars sport only a single cusp as opposed to between two and four. During the Pleistocene, the dhole ranged throughout Asia, Europe and North America but became restricted to its historical range 12,000–18,000 years ago.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fox</span> Genera of mammal

Foxes are small to medium-sized, omnivorous mammals belonging to several genera of the family Canidae. They have a flattened skull, upright, triangular ears, a pointed, slightly upturned snout, and a long bushy tail ("brush").

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Wolf</span> Type of canine

The wolf, also known as the gray wolf or grey wolf, is a large canine native to Eurasia and North America. More than thirty subspecies of Canis lupus have been recognized, including the dog and dingo, though gray wolves, as popularly understood, only comprise naturally-occurring wild subspecies. The wolf is the largest extant member of the family Canidae, and is further distinguished from other Canis species by its less pointed ears and muzzle, as well as a shorter torso and a longer tail. The wolf is nonetheless related closely enough to smaller Canis species, such as the coyote and the golden jackal, to produce fertile hybrids with them. The wolf's fur is usually mottled white, brown, gray, and black, although subspecies in the arctic region may be nearly all white.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dingo</span> Canid species native to Australia

The dingo is an ancient (basal) lineage of dog found in Australia. Its taxonomic classification is debated as indicated by the variety of scientific names presently applied in different publications. It is variously considered a form of domestic dog not warranting recognition as a subspecies, a subspecies of dog or wolf, or a full species in its own right.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culpeo</span> Species of carnivore

The culpeo, also known as culpeo zorro, Andean zorro, Andean fox, Paramo wolf, Andean wolf, and colpeo fox, is a species of South American fox. Regardless of the name, it is not a true fox, but more closely related to wolves and jackals. Its appearance resembles that of foxes due to convergent evolution.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swift fox</span> Species of mammal

The swift fox is a small light orange-tan fox around the size of a domestic cat found in the western grasslands of North America, such as Montana, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. It also lives in southern Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta in Canada, where it was previously extirpated. It is closely related to the kit fox and some mammalogists classify them as conspecific. However, molecular systematics imply that the two species are distinct. Interbreeding between the two species does occur where their ranges overlap, but this hybridization is quite restricted in scope.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape fox</span> Species of carnivore

The Cape fox, also called the asse, cama fox or the silver-backed fox, is a small species of fox, native to southern Africa. It is also called a South African version of a fennec fox due to its similarly big ears. It is the only "true fox" occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, and it retains primitive characteristics of Vulpes because it diverged early in the evolutionary history of the group.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gray fox</span> Species of canid (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)

The gray fox, or grey fox, is an omnivorous mammal of the family Canidae, widespread throughout North America and Central America. This species and its only congener, the diminutive island fox of the California Channel Islands, are the only living members of the genus Urocyon, which is considered to be genetically basal to all other living canids. Its species name cinereoargenteus means "ashen silver".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ethiopian wolf</span> Canine native to Ethiopian Highlands

The Ethiopian wolf, also called the Simien jackal and Simien fox, is a canine native to the Ethiopian Highlands. In southeastern Ethiopia it is also known as the horse jackal. It is similar to the coyote in size and build, and is distinguished by its long and narrow skull, and its red and white fur. Unlike most large canids, which are widespread, generalist feeders, the Ethiopian wolf is a highly specialised feeder of Afroalpine rodents with very specific habitat requirements. It is one of the world's rarest canids, and Africa's most endangered carnivore.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Black-backed jackal</span> Species of carnivore

The black-backed jackal, also called the silver-backed jackal, is a medium-sized canine native to eastern and southern Africa. These regions are separated by roughly 900 kilometers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pampas fox</span> Species of carnivore

The Pampas fox, also known as grey pampean fox, Pampas zorro, Azara's fox, or Azara's zorro, is a medium-sized zorro, or "false" fox, native to the South American Pampas. Azara in some of its alternative common names is a reference to Spanish naturalist Félix de Azara.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Poison shyness</span>

Poison shyness, also called conditioned food aversion, is the avoidance of a toxic substance by an animal that has previously ingested that substance. Animals learn an association between stimulus characteristics, usually the taste or odor, of a toxic substance and the illness it produces; this allows them to detect and avoid the substance. Poison shyness occurs as an evolutionary adaptation in many animals, most prominently in generalists that feed on many different materials. It is often called bait shyness when it occurs during attempts at pest control of insects and animals. If the pest ingests the poison bait at sublethal doses, it typically detects and avoids the bait, rendering the bait ineffective.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guard llama</span> Camelids used to protect livestock

A guard llama is a llama that is used in farming to protect sheep, goats, hens or other livestock from canidae such as coyotes, dingos, dogs, foxes and other predators. In the past, a single gelded (castrated) male was recommended. In more recent years, it has been discovered that single, unbred females make better and safer guardians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surplus killing</span> Animal and human predatory behavior

Surplus killing, also known as excessive killing, henhouse syndrome, or overkill, is a common behavior exhibited by predators, in which they kill more prey than they can immediately eat and then they either cache or abandon the remainder. The term was invented by Dutch biologist Hans Kruuk after studying spotted hyenas in Africa and red foxes in England. Some of the other animals which have been observed engaging in surplus killing include orcas, zooplankton, humans, damselfly naiads, predaceous mites, martens, weasels, honey badgers, jaguar, leopards, lions, wolves, spiders, brown bears, American black bears, polar bears, coyotes, lynxes, minks, raccoons and dogs.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">M44 (cyanide device)</span>

The M44 cyanide device is used to kill coyotes, feral dogs, and foxes. It is made from four parts: a capsule holder wrapped with cloth or other soft material, a small plastic capsule containing 0.88 grams of sodium cyanide, a spring-powered ejector, and a 5-7 inch stake. To install the trap, the stake is first driven down into the ground, and then the capsule is put in the holder, screwed onto the cocked ejector, and secured to the stake. The wrapped capsule holder is smeared with scented bait to attract coyotes and make them bite and pull on it. When the trap is triggered, the spring propels a dose of sodium cyanide into the animal's mouth, and the sodium cyanide combines with water in the mouth to produce poisonous cyanide gas. In addition to the cyanide, the capsule contains a brightly-colored particle marker.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Livestock guardian dog</span> Dog type bred for the purpose of protecting livestock from predators

A livestock guardian dog (LGD) is a dog type bred for the purpose of protecting livestock from predators.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sheep</span> Domesticated ruminant bred for meat, wool, and milk

Sheep or domestic sheep are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term sheep can apply to other species in the genus Ovis, in everyday usage it almost always refers to domesticated sheep. Like all ruminants, sheep are members of the order Artiodactyla, the even-toed ungulates. Numbering a little over one billion, domestic sheep are also the most numerous species of sheep. An adult female is referred to as a ewe, an intact male as a ram, occasionally a tup, a castrated male as a wether, and a young sheep as a lamb.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red fox</span> Species of mammal

The red fox is the largest of the true foxes and one of the most widely distributed members of the order Carnivora, being present across the entire Northern Hemisphere including most of North America, Europe and Asia, plus parts of North Africa. It is listed as least concern by the IUCN. Its range has increased alongside human expansion, having been introduced to Australia, where it is considered harmful to native mammals and bird populations. Due to its presence in Australia, it is included on the list of the "world's 100 worst invasive species".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dietary biology of the golden eagle</span> Hunting and dietary habits of the golden eagle

The golden eagle is one of the most powerful predators in the avian world. One author described it as "the pre-eminent diurnal predator of medium-sized birds and mammals in open country throughout the Northern Hemisphere". Golden eagles usually hunt during daylight hours, but were recorded hunting from one hour before sunrise to one hour after sunset during the breeding season in southwestern Idaho. The hunting success rate of golden eagles was calculated in Idaho, showing that, out of 115 hunting attempts, 20% were successful in procuring prey. A fully-grown golden eagle requires about 230 to 250 g of food per day. In the life of most eagles, there are cycles of feast and famine, and eagles have been known to go without food for up to a week. Following these periods without food, they will then gorge on up to 900 g (2.0 lb) at one sitting. The powerful talons of the golden eagle ensure that few preys can escape them once contact is made. The talons of this species exert approximately 440 pounds per square inch (3 MPa) of pressure, around 15 times more pressure than is exerted by the human hand, although some claim that the largest individual females may reach a pressure of 750 psi (5.2 MPa). It has been claimed that the golden eagle can lift more than its own body weight in flight. However, other sources claim that a hare, marmot or deer calf weighing 4 kg (8.8 lb) is a struggle for even a large female to carry and that prey much over 2 kg (4.4 lb) would require favorably high wind conditions.

References

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  2. ↑ "Sheep mauled by wild dogs". Tweed Daily News. 2008-01-19. Retrieved 2020-12-07.
  3. ↑ Lewis, Gareth (2008-01-21). "Sheep worrying leads to warning from farmers". The Daily Echo. Retrieved 2008-01-21.
  4. 1 2 3 Macdonald, David Whyte; Claudio Sillero-Zubiri (2004). The Biology and Conservation of Wild Canids. Oxford University Press. ISBN   0-19-851555-3.
  5. ↑ Timm, Robert M.; Guy Connolly (2001). "Sheep killing coyotes a continuing dilemma for ranchers" (PDF). California Agriculture (published November 2001). 55 (6): 26–32. doi:10.3733/ca.v055n06p26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-11.
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  8. ↑ Smith M.S., Barbara; Mark Aseltine PhD; Gerald Kennedy DVM (1997). Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. ISBN   0-8138-2799-X.
  9. 1 2 Ensminger, Dr. M.E.; Dr. R.O. Parker (1986). Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc. ISBN   0-8134-2464-X.
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  11. ↑ Past and Present – Sign In Page [ dead link ]
  12. ↑ Southern New England Landcare Group, Foxchat No. 71, June–July 1009
  13. ↑ "Chisholm, Alec H.". The Australian Encyclopaedia. Vol. 8. Sydney: Halstead Press. 1963. p. 405.
  14. ↑ "Australia's Thylacine: What did the Thylacine look like?". Australian Museum. 1999. Archived from the original on 24 October 2009. Retrieved 21 November 2006.
  15. ↑ "Tasmanian Tiger's Jaw Was Too Small to Attack Sheep, Study Shows" Archived 23 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Science Daily . 1 September 2011.
  16. ↑ "Tasmanian tiger was no sheep killer" Archived 4 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine . ABC Science . 1 September 2011.
  17. ↑ "Brown Bear". Tooth & Claw. Archived from the original on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-01-05.
  18. ↑ "A geographical perspective on the decline and extermination of the Irish wolf canis lupus" (PDF). Kieran R. Hickey. Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
  19. ↑ Mitchell-Jones, A. J. (2020). Badger impacts on biodiversity and agriculture in Scotland: a literature review (PDF). NatureScot Research Report (Report).
  20. ↑ C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Hooded Crow: Corvus cornix, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed, N. Stromberg Archived 2010-11-26 at the Wayback Machine
  21. ↑ https://www.sasa.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Golden%20eage%20predation%20of%20lambs_benbecula%202003_0.pdf [ bare URL PDF ]
  22. ↑ Is Lamb Survival in the Scottish Uplands Related to the Presence of Breeding White-Tailed Eagles (Haliaeetus Albicilla) as well as other Livestock Predators and Environmental Variables? A pilot study into sea eagle predation on lambs in the Gairloch area: Scottish Natural Heritage Commissioned Report 370
  23. ↑ Marquiss, M., M. Madders, J. Irvine & David N. Carss 2004: The Impact of White-Tailed Eagles on Sheep Farming on Mull. Final Report. ITE/004/99. Scottish Executive
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  26. 1 2 Wooster, Chuck (2005). Living with Sheep: Everything You Need to Know to Raise Your Own Flock. Geoff Hansen (Photography). Guilford, Connecticut: The Lyons Press. ISBN   1-59228-531-7.
  27. ↑ "Effects of Wildlife Services on Predator Populations". Wildlife Services. October 2001. Archived from the original on 2003-01-14. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  28. ↑ "Predator Defense" . Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  29. ↑ Kim Murray Berger. "Carnivore-Livestock Conflicts: Effects of Subsidized Predator Control and Economic Correlates on the Sheep Industry" (PDF). Wildlife Conservation Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-27. Retrieved 2008-01-24.
  30. ↑ Brown, Dave; Sam Meadowcroft (1996). The Modern Shepherd. Wharfedale Road, Ipswich 1P1 4LG, United Kingdom: Farming Press. ISBN   0-85236-188-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
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